Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/africakeltieOOkeltiala 


THE 

HISTORY 

or  NATIONS 


AFRICA 


nil: 


;^; 
o 

fan 
O 


•2      »>. 


ttq 


k 


c    .3 


ti. 


::: 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NATIONS 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE,Phn.LLD.,n)ITOR-lN-CHIEF 


AFRICA 

by 

J  SCOTT  KELTIC, LL.D. 

President  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 

Revised  and  E^dited 
by 

ALBERT  GALLOWAY  RELLERPhD. 

Professor  of  the  Science  of  Society 
Yale  University 


Volume  XIX 


Illustrated 


The  H  .W.  Snow  and  Son  Company 

C  1 1    i    c  •     a    s7     o 


(   dl'VKK.III.     I'.tUT.     l'.\ 

loIlN"    1)    MORRIS  &  (•()MI'.\^■^■ 


(■c'l•^  Kii.iiT.   r.Mit 
I  ill-    II.  W    SXOW  v^-  SOX  COM  PAX  V 


<,'TLL'^ /  Uii^< 


o'c/  ( 


9  2.  ^>f-^^ 


THE    HISTORY    OF  NATIONS 

EDlTOR-IN  CHIEF 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE,   PLD.,  L.L.D. 
Associate  Editors  and  Authors 

ARCHIBALD  BEKRT  SAYCE.  LL.D..  SIR  ROBERT  K.  DOUGLAS. 

Pro(*»*or     of     Aisyriology.     Oxford     Uni-  Professor  of  Chinese,   King's  College,  Lon- 


verMty 


don 


JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
CHRISTOPHER  JOHIfSTOW,  M.D.,  Ph.D..  Professor  of   Political   Economy   and    Pol- 

Auociate  Professor  of  Oriental  History  and  itics,  Cornell  University 

Archaeology,  Johns   Hopkins  University 

KARICHI  ASAKAWA,  Ph.D., 

t-    nr    n    r.uA«    ii    n  Instructor    in     the     History    of    Japanese 

C.  W.  t.  UMAn,  LL.u.,  Civilization,  Yale  University 


Professor  of  History,  Oxford  University 


WILFRED  HAROLD  MUNRO,  Ph.D.. 


THEODOR   MOMMSEH.  ^'universit^y     ''"^"P**"     "''''°^>'-     ^^'^^ 


G.  MERCER   ADAM, 

Historian  and  Ivditor 


L*t«    Professor   of    Ancient    History.    Uni- 
versity of  Herlin 


ARTHUR  C.  HOWLAND,  Ph.D.. 

^s^va^nfa"'  "^  "*''°''''  ^''^^^^'^'^^ ''^  P'"""        FRED  MORROW  FLING.  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Kuroi)ean  History,  University 
of  Nebraska 

CHARLES  MERIVALE,  LL.D., 

Late    Dean    of    Hly.    formerly    Lecturer   in        FRA.NIJOIS  AUGUSTS  MARIE  MIGIfET. 
History,  Cambridge  I'niversity  Late  Member  of  the  French  .^cademy 

JAMES  WESTFALL  THOMPSON.  Ph.D.. 
J.  HIGOINSON   CABOT,  Ph.D..  Department     of     History.      University     of 

liepaitment  of    History,   Wcllesley   College  Chicago 

SAMUEL  RAWSON  GARDINER.  LL.D.. 
SIR  WILLIAM  W.   HUNTER,  F.R.S..  Professor  of   .Modem    History.    Kings  Col- 

late Director  (icr.rral  of  Statistics  in  India  lego.  London 

R.  W.  JOYCE.  LL.D.. 
OEORGE   M.  DUTCHER.  Ph  D  .  Commissioner   for    the    Publication    of   th. 

Professor  of   Hiitory.  Wesleyan    University  A^cient  Laws  of  Ireland 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  AND   AUTHORS-Continued 


JUSTIN  McCarthy,  ll.d.. 

Author  and  Historian 


PAUL  LOUIS  LEGER, 

Professor  of  the  Slav  Languages,  C^Sllega 
de  France 


AUGUSTUS  HUNT  SHEARER,  Ph.D., 

Instructor    in     History.     Trinity    College.       WILLIAM  E.  LINSLEBACH,  Ph.D., 

Hartford  Assistant  Professor  of  European  History, 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

W.  HAROLD  CLAFLIN,  BJ^., 

Department    of    History,     Harvard    Uni-       BAYARD  TAYLOR, 


versjty 


Former  United  States  Minister  to  Germany 


CHARLES  DANDLIKER,  LL.D.. 

President  of  Zurich  University 


SIDNEY  B.  FAY,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  History,    Dartmouth  College 


ELBERT  JAY  BENTON.  Ph.D., 

Dartment 
Jniversity 


Department  of  History,  Western  Reserve 
tJr 


SIR  EDWARD  S.  CREASY, 

Late  Professor  of  History.  University  Col- 
lege, London 


ARCHIBALD  CARY  COOLIDGE,  Ph.D., 

Assistant    Professor   of    History,    Harvard 
University 


WILLIAM  RICHARD  MORFILL,  M.A., 

Professor  of   Russian  and   other  Slavonic 
Languages,  Oxford  University 


CHARLES  EDMUND  FRYER,  Ph.D., 

Department  of  History,  McGill  University 

E.  C.  OTTE, 

Specialist  on  Scandinavian  History 


J.  SCOTT  KELTIE,  LL.D., 

President  Royal  Geographical  Society 


ALBERT  GALLOWAY  KELLER,  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  the  Science  of  So- 
ciety, Yale  University 


EDWARD  JAMES  PAYNE,  M.A., 

Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford 


PHILIP  PATTERSON  WELLS,  Ph.D., 

Lecturer  in  History  and  Librarian  of  tha 
Law  School,  Yale  University 


FREDERICK  ALBION  OBER, 

Historian,  Author  and  Traveler 


JAMES  WILFORD  GARNER,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Science,   University 
of  Illinois 


EDWARD  S.  CORWIN,  Ph.D., 

Instructor    in     History,     Princeton     Uni- 
versity 


JOHN  BACH  McMASTER,  Litt.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  Peon- 
sylvania 


JAMES   LAMONT   PERKINS,   Managing  Editor 


The  editors  and  publishers  desire  to  express  their  appreciation  for  valuable 
advice  and  suggestions  received  from  the  following:  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White, 
LL.D.,  Alfred  Thayer  Mahan,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Hon.  Charles  Emory  Smith, 
LL.D.,  Professor  Edward  Gaylord  Bourne,  Ph.D.,  Charles  F.  Thwing, 
LL.D.,  Dr.  Emil  Reich,  William  Elliot  Ghiffis,  LL.D.,  Professor  John 
Martin  Vincent,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Melvil  Dewey,  LL.D.,  Alston  Ellis,  LL.D.. 
Professor  Charles  II.  McCarthy,  Ph.D.,  Pkcjfessor  Herman  V.  Ames,  Ph.D., 
Professor  Walter  L.  Fleming,  Ph.D.,  Professor  David  Y.  Thomas,  Ph.D., 
Mr.  Otto  Reich  and  Mr.  O.  M.  Dickerson. 

vii 


PREFACE 

The  activities  of  the  editor  of  this  volume  have  been  confined  to 
the  following  lines:  the  excision  or  condensation  of  such  passages 
as  are,  for  various  reasons,  of  less  value  to  the  general  reader;  the 
tempering  of  the  admittedly  chauvinistic  attitude  and  bias  charac- 
teristic of  the  book ;  the  substitution  of  more  recent  figures,  and  the 
addition  of  certain  details  in  the  main  body  of  the  text,  and 
bibliography;  and  finally  the  interpolation  of  a  chapter  (XVIII) 
which  attempts  to  summarize  in  an  impartial  manner  the  main 
events  which  have  taken  place  since  the  author  printed  his 
second  edition,  in  1895.  The  author,  though  cognizant  of  the 
present  undertaking,  is  in  no  way  responsible  for  such  omissions  or 
additions  as  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  adapting  his  volume  to 
the  use  of  the  general  American  public. 

The  once  "  Dark  Continent "  has  been,  in  our  own  day,  the 
scene  of  international  rivalries  and  concessions,  heartburning  and 
complacency,  successes  and  failures  on  a  scale  hitherto  unknown  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  The  conditions  of  African  development 
have  called  into  action  variations  of  human  activity,  individual  and 
governmental,  of  the  most  picturesque  nature.  Africa  is  no  longer 
the  "  Dark  Continent,"  knowledge  of  which  is  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
interesting  specialty — it  is  time  that  every  reasonably  educated  man 
should  be  conversant  with  the  main  facts  of  its  history  if  he  is  to  be 
fitted  to  hold  an  opinion  regarding  the  status  and  future  of  one  of 
humanity's  greatest  and  most  momentous  enterprises. 


CUMt^. /^^-^U- 


Yale  University 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  North  Africa — From  the  Ancients  to  the  Arabs 

200O  B.  C.-1800  A.  D.         .         .         .         .         .3 

II.  The  Portuguese  in  Africa.     1364- 1580  .         -15 

III.  The  Beginning  of  Rivalry.     1520-1769  .         .     2rj 

IV.  Stagnation  and  Slavery.    1700-1815      .         .         -35 
V.  The  Position  IN  1815     ......     42 

VI.  Sixty  Years  of  Preparation.    1815-1875         .         .     47 
VII.  Preliminaries  to  Partition.     1875-1883         .         .     58 
VIII.  England,  France,  and  Portugal  in  Africa.    1875- 

1884 71 

IX.  Germany  Enters  the  Field.    1884         .         .         .86 
X.  Germany  in   the  Cameroons   and  the  Gulf  of 

Guinea.    1884 105 

XI.  The   Berlin    Conference   and   the    Congo    Free 

State.    1884-1910 114 

XII.  German  East  Africa.     1865-1910         .         .         .   127 

XIII.  The  Struggle  for  the  Niger.    1817-1910         .         .   147 

XIV.  German  Progress  IN  West  Africa.    1865-1910         .   172 
XV.  British    East   Africa.     1886-1910         •         .         •   182 

XVI.  The  Italian  Sphere  and  the  Islands.    1875-1910  •  207 

XVII.  British  Central  and  South  Africa.    1877-1895     .  214 

XVIII.  Africa  Since  1895 245 

XIX.  The   Economic  Value  of  Africa         .         ..         .  286 


Appendix 

Bibliography 

Index 


315 

319 
329 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


In  the  Heart  of  Darkest  Africa  (Photogravure)        Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 


David  Livingstone       ....... 

The  Murder  of  Gordon         ...... 

In  the  Country  of  the  Tuaregs         .... 

Battle  off  Omdurman         ...... 

Lobengula  Warriors  Assagaing  an  English  Trooper 
The    Sultan   of   Morocco   on    his   Way   to   the    Kutubia 
Mosque  ........ 

The  Battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir         ..... 

Dr.  Jameson's  Raid  into  the  Transvaal 


52 

84 

152 

206 

220 

246 
266 
278 


TEXT  MAPS 

PAGE 

Africa  according  to  Herodotus.    456  b.c.    ....        8 

Voyages  and  Discoveries  along  the  African  Coast     .         .       19 
Africa.     181 5       .........       43 

The  Congo  Region       ........       73 

The  Gulf  of  Guinea     ........     108 

Africa  after  the  Berlin  Conference         .         .         .         .118 

The  Niger  Region         ........     148 

East  Africa         .........     187 

The  Italian  Sphere     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .211 

British  Central  and  South  Africa     .....     230 

Railroads  and  Water  Highways  of  Africa        .        ..,        .     299 


xiii 


HISTORY  OF  AFRICA 


HISTORY  OF  AFRICA 


Chapter  I 

NORTH  AFRICA— FROM  THE  ANCIENTS  TO  THE  ARABS. 
2000  B.  C.-1800  A.  D. 

THE  African  continent  is  no  recent  discovery;  it  is  not  a 
new  world  like  America  or  Australia.  It  enters  into  the 
oldest  traditions  and  the  most  ancient  history.  While  yet 
Europe  was  the  home  of  wandering  barbarians,  long-  before  Abra- 
ham left  his  father's  fields  or  the  Phoenicians  had  settled  on  the 
Syrian  coast,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  civilizations  on  record  had 
begun  to  work  out  its  destiny  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  It  does  not 
enter  into  the  scope  of  this  work  to  discuss  the  origin  or  trace  the 
history  of  Egypt;  it  is  enough  for  us  that  the  continent  on  which 
the  oldest,  or,  at  least,  one  of  the  oldest,  civilizations  was  born  and 
was  developed  through  thousands  of  years  is  even  now  less  known 
than  a  continent  discovered  four  hundred  years  ago,  and  has  only 
during  the  past  few  years  been  taken  seriously  in  hand  by  the 
peoples  who  have  the  making  of  the  world's  commerce  and  the 
world's  history. 

Let  us  briefly  trace  the  earliest  efforts  made  to  appropriate  the 
African  continent  by  those  whose  interests  have  extended  beyond 
their  own  homes.  Ages  before  the  seed  of  Egyptian  civilization 
was  sown,  humanity  had  begun  to  pour  in  from  Asia,  and  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  must  have  been  peopled  by  a  race  which  formed  the 
basis  of  the  Berber  population  of  the  present  day.  But  these  were 
wandering  barbarians,  just  as  were  the  pigmies,  the  Zulus,  the 
Hottentots,  farther  south.  The  portion  of  Africa  on  which  the 
Egyptians  flourished  for  ages  was  even  to  a  late  period  regarded 
as  a  part  of  Arabia.  The  Egyptians  are  not  generally  credited  with 
being  great  navigators  till  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies;  except  along 
the  coastland  of  the  Mediterranean,  their  knowledge  of  Africa  west- 
ward was  probably  limited  to  the  Nile  valley.     Very  early  in  their 


4  AFRICA 

2000-1100  B.  C. 

history,  as  early,  probably,  as  2000  b.  c,  they  had  dcaliti^s  with 
I-'thiopia  (the  country  generally  lying  south  of  I'^gyiit  projier,  in- 
chuling  Nubia.  Xorthcni  Abyssinia,  and  possibly  Kordofan),  and 
so  their  knowledge  of  the  river  may  have  extended  as  far  as  the  site 
of  Khartum.  Let  us  realize  how  vague  were  the  notions  of  both 
the  dreeks  and  the  Romans  of  central  and  northern  luirope,  and  of 
Asia  l>ey(Mi(l  India  and  Persia.  Iu)r  untold  ages  the  Old  World 
knew  nothing  of  the  Xew\  and  only  half  a  century  ago  the  map  of 
Central  .Africa  was  for  Europeans,  so  far  as  anytiiing  like  even 
approximately  accurate  knowledge  goes,  a  blank  from  10^  north 
latitude  to  the  confines  of  the  Cape  Colony.  It  is  about  forty  years 
since  we  obtained  any  certain  knowledge  of  those  great  lakes  which 
fnuii  an  early  j^criod  were  rumored  to  exist  in  the  center  of  the 
ctmtiiiont.  It  is  only  a  little  over  twenty-five  years  since  the  course 
of  Africa's  greatest  river  was  traced  out  by  Stanley. 

If.  then,  four  hundred  years  after  the  discovery  of  a  new  con- 
tinent, with  all  tlie  intense  eagerness  of  the  modern  world  for 
increasing  knowledge,  with  half  a  dozen  great  nations  representing 
some  200.000.000  of  the  most  advanced  peoples  of  the  earth  keenly 
competing  in  the  ex])loration  of  the  world  and  in  the  accpiisition  of 
wealth  and  of  power,  we  are  still  ignorant  of  great  areas  in  Central 
Africa,  need  we  be  surprised  that  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations 
of  anticpiity.  with  wants  insignificant  comj^ared  with  ours,  with  a 
total  po])ulati()n  scarcely  equal  to  that  of  one  of  our  great  states, 
with  all  Europe  and  all  Asia  before  them,  should  leave  the  torrid, 
impenetrable,  unproductive  continent  and  its  savages  alone,  taking 
from  it  only  what  could  i^e  conveniently  reached  from  trading  sta- 
tions on  tl'.e  coast  or  through  the  navigable  channel  of  the  Nile? 
North  Africa  was  practically  the  only  Africa  that  the  ancients 
knew,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  camel  is  a  compara- 
tively modern  introduction  into  Africa,  and  both  the  ox  and  the 
horse  would  be  but  poor  substitutes  for  it  in  traversing  the  Sahara, 
the  mr)st  formidable  barrier  to  the  jienetration  of  Central  .Africa 
from  tlic  north.  ,\nd  Egyj)t.  especially  in  the  height  of  her  great- 
ness, was,  on  the  whole,  UKjrc  concerned  with  .Asia  than  with  her 
own  Continent. 

Tlic  i 'I'.on:c!;ins  and  Carthaginians  did  far  more  to  extend  the 
knowie<lge  of  Africa  than  did  the  hLgyptians;  and  it  may  have  been 
from  llu-ni  that  llonicr  and  llcsiod  derived  their  knowledge  of  the 
Mediterranean    coa-t.      The    I\L,''yptians    themselves,    as    has    been 


NORTH     AFRICA  6 

1100-610   B.   C. 

Stated,  were  not  great  navigators;  indeed,  they  seem  not  to  have 
possessed  a  fleet  of  any  importance  till  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies. 
But  long  before  this  the  Phoenicians  had  appeared  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  soon  achieved  a  position  as  traders,  navigators,  and 
colonizers  unequaled  by  any  people  of  ancient  times  except  perhaps 
the  Arabians ;  for  a  long  period  the  Phcenicians  had  almost  a  monop- 
oly of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  world,  and  their 
sailors  were  in  demand  for  the  ships  of  other  nations.  About  their 
connection  wnth  Africa  there  is  no  doubt.  They  were  probably  not 
the  first  of  the  Semitic  family  to  settle  in  North  Africa ;  Hamites, 
at  least,  there  were  in  plenty.  Possibly  the  Egyptians  themselves 
were  largely  of  this  type,  as  was  the  population  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Africa.  Utica,  perhaps  the  earliest  Phoenician 
colony  in  Africa,  was  founded  about  iioo  b.  c,  280  years  before 
Carthage,  a  few  miles  distant  on  the  same  coast.  Before  Car- 
thage was  founded  Utica  had  established  stations  or  trading  facto- 
ries along  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa  and  down  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Syrian  colonies  were  thickly  planted  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
river  now  known  as  the  Draa,  to  the  south  of  Morocco,  and  thence, 
it  is  believed,  there  were  caravan  routes  to  the  country  of  the  Blacks. 
Carthage  also,  like  Utica,  as  it  grew  in  power,  established  its  sta- 
tions west  and  south  along  the  African  coast.  Many  of  these  set- 
tlements were  more  than  mere  trading  stations;  cultivation  of 
various  kinds  was  carried  on,  and  from  tlie  African  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  corn  was  exported  in  large  quantities. 

We  have  fairly  definite  information  as  to  the  knowledge  which 
the  Carthaginians  had  of  the  African  west  coast,  but  considerable 
doubt  exists  as  to  how  far  the  Phoenicians  were  in  the  habit  of  voy- 
aging down  the  east  coast  of  the  continent.  The  story  of  the 
circumnavigation  of  the  continent  by  Phoenicians  in  the  time  of 
King  Necho,  about  610  b.  c,  has  often  been  tokl.  So  far  as  the 
data  go,  that  a  Phoenician  expedition  starting  from  the  Red  Sea 
sailed  down  the  east  coast,  round  the  south  coast,  and  north  by  the 
west  coast  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  and  on  to  Egypt,  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  crediting  the  story.  .At  that  period  the  ships  of  the 
Phoenicians  must  have  been  quite  as  capable  of  coasting  along  Africa 
as  they  were  of  navigating  the  Atlantic,  crossing  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
to  the  shores  of  Britain.  They  knew  the  west  coast  of  the  con- 
tinent for  a  considerable  distance  south,  and  they  probably  knew 
the  east  coast  at  least  to  a  point  beyond  the  Red  Sea.     The  passage 


f)  A  1'  U  I  ('  A 

1000-500  B.  C. 

is  well  known  in  which  it  is  stated  that  Solomon  (about  ickx)  ii.  c.) 
equipiKci  a  licet  at  V./.\on  Gchir  on  the  Arabian  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  and  how.  with  the  help  c^f  Hiram.  Kinpf  of  Tyre,  it  was  sent  to 
Ophir  and  brinii^ht  back  420  talents  (^f  .Cfold.  In  another  passag^e 
it  is  relatctl  lu'W  the  united  fleets  of  Solomon  and  Hiram  went 
every  three  years  and  br(>u.i;ht  back  not  only  i^old,  but  siKer, 
ivory,  monkeys,  and  peacocks,  besides  sandalwood  and  precious 
stones. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  Arabians  themselves  were  prcat 
traders  aiul  navij^.attns ;  that  the  l*h(enicians  were  in  constant  com- 
numicaticn  witli  them:  that  they  must  have  known  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  which  was  (|uite  within  hail  of  their  country;  that  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  tliey  had  settlements  there  from  a  remote 
period,  and  in  all  probability  were  familiar  with  the  b'ast  African 
coast  far  t(^  the  south.  Indeed,  the  Arabians  seem  to  have  jealously 
j^'u.'.rded  t!:e  east  coast  of  Africa,  the  PlKcnicians  actin<i^  as  inter- 
mediaries between  them  and  Kc^ypt  and  the  other  countries  on  the 
Mediterranean.  That  some  jieople,  long"  before  the  Portuguese, 
woikcd  the  mines  in  tiie  country  which  we  now  call  Mashonaland  is 
e\  idenccd  by  tlie  great  ruins  scattered  all  over  the  country:  whether 
tlicy  were  Arabians.  Persians,  Indians,  or  Phcenicians.  remains  to 
be  discovered,  but  it  is  certain  that  these  ruins  are  older  than  the 
.^b)haIumed;'.n  period.  Directly  or  indirectly,  then,  it  is  probable  the 
c;i-t  coast  cf  Africa  was  known  to  the  Arabians  as  far  south  as  about 
.Mozambi(|ue.  If  tlie  Pho-nicians  knew  of  this  they  kejjt  their  knowl- 
Cwge  to  themselves,  or  at  least  did  not  communicate  it  to  the  Greeks, 
fr.  ni  whom  oiu-  knowledge  of  what  the  Pluenicians  did  and  knew 
is  largely  derived.  Motives  of  trade-monopoly  were  doubtless  at 
t!;e  bi.ttiiiu  <.f  tliis  secrecv. 

W'e  lirive  much  fuller  and  more  precise  evidence  of  the 
extent  of  Pi.o-nician.  or  rather  Carthaginian,  knowledge  and  enter- 
I)ri<c  en  tl:c  we<t  ihan  on  tlie  cast  coast  of  Africa.  According  to 
one  >tatcment  Tie  I'lirenician  settlements  on  the  west  coast  had 
been  attacke'l  <i<mQ  five  hundred  years  before  Christ  bv  the  natives 
of  the  inter;,  .r  and  <ome  '  f  them  destroyed.  However  this  luay  have 
been,  there  is  iittle  doubt  that  about  that  date  Hanno.  a  Carthagin- 
ian admiral,  was  sent  out  with  a  large  fleet  of  vessels  containing 
swme  3o.()Co  nntixcs  f.f  the  district  round  Carthage,  some  of  them 
imre  Cartl.agini;!!;^.  ni'>-t  ,,\  tlieni  {H'ob.ablv  natives  subject  to  the 
-tale,   who  ji.td   hcin   ;.  .1   crriain   extent   cixiii/ed.      Hanno  settled 


NORTHAFRICA  7 

1000-500   B.    C. 

contingents  of  these  colonists  at  various  places  along  the  west  coast, 
and  succeeded  with  his  fleet  in  getting  as  far  south  as  about  Sierra 
Leone;  some  critics  would  even  take  him  to  the  Bight  of  Benin. 

The  Phoenicians  may  thus  fairly  be  regarded  as  the  first  to 
begin  the  development  of  Africa  some  3000  years  ago ;  though  it 
is  possible,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  Arabs  had  stations  on  the  east 
coast  at  quite  as  remote  a  date.  The  Phcenicians  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  the  earliest  of  explorers,  though  their  explorations  were 
always  with  a  view  to  trade.  Much  of  the  knowledge  of  Africa 
possessed  by  the  Greeks,  who  have  transmitted  it  to  us,  was  obtained 
from  the  Phoenicians  and  their  colonists  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast. 

It  is  probable  enough  that  trading  relations  may  have  been 
established  with  these  native  tribes,  and  so  from  stage  to  stage 
a  connection  may  have  been  formed  with  the  Sudan  region  beyond 
the  Sahara. 

Before  the  date  of  the  possible  circumnavigation  under  Necho, 
over  a  century  before  the  voyage  of  Hanno,  we  hear  of  the  first 
establishment  of  a  European  power  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  There 
is  evidence  that  long  before  this  period  Greeks  had  found  their 
way  to  Egypt,  and  to  the  Phoenician  settlements,  and  that  there  was 
a  busy  intercourse  between  the  two  shores  of  the  Mediterranean; 
but  it  was  only  in  631  b.  c.  that  the  Greeks  planted  a  settlement  of 
their  own  on  the  continent.  They  chose  one  of  the  most  delightful 
and  fertile  spots  in  all  Africa — that  part  of  Tripoli  known  as  Barca. 
Here  the  city  of  Cyrene  was  founded  and  the  district  was  known  as 
Cyrenaica.  In  time  other  cities  were  founded,  and  a  flourishing 
Greek  settlement  grew  up,  which  carried  on  agriculture  and  trade 
relations  with  the  tribes  of  the  interior.  Greeks  flocked  to  this 
African  settlement,  many  as  colonists,  some  few  out  of  curiosity  as 
visitors.  The  intercourse  between  Greece  and  Africa  became  more 
and  more  constant,  and  before  Herodotus  arrived  in  Egypt,  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c,  he  had  been  preceded  by  others, 
tliough  by  no  one  so  eager  for  information  nor  so  skilled  in  record- 
ing it.  But  we  do  not  in  those  early  times  hear  of  any  enterprises 
corresponding  to  our  modern  exploring  expeditions,  the  main  object 
of  which  is  the  increase  of  knowledge.  We  find  men  like  Herodo- 
tus, and  others  after  him,  going  alxnit  the  world  of  the  period,  but 
it  was  rather  in  the  capacity  of  tourists  than  ex[)lorers.  All  this 
going  to  and  fro  for  commerce,  for  confjucst,  for  curiosity,  could 


8  AFRICA 

800-448   B.   C. 

not.  however,  fail  to  mlil  to  tlic  knowledge  of  the  world  possessed 
bv  the  Greeks,  who.  S(^  far  as  wc  are  concerned,  were  tlie  center  of 
the  knowlctls^e  oi  tlie  time.  One  of  the  earliest  Greek  geographers, 
if  not  the  earliest,  to  make  a  map  of  the  world  was  Ileca- 
txiis  of  Miletus.  A  map  of  Herodotus,  which  may  be  dated  fifty 
years  later.  il>>cs  not  dilVcr  greatly  from  that  of  Ilecataius.  We 
have  a  little  more  detail  and  a  little  more  precision  in  parts.     But 


fortunately  the  text  of  Herodotus  is  preserved  intact ;  and  it  is  to 
him  wc  are  indcl)ted  for  our  knowledge  of  what  the  Greeks  knew 
of  the  continent  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  He  visited  Egypt  and 
Gyrene  about  44S  b.  c,  and  there  set  himself  diligently  to  collect 
information  concerning  the  interior  of  Africa.  He  gives  a  very 
fair  picture  r,f  tlie  srtcial  and  political  condition  of  the  peoples  of 
the  Xile  Valley  at  the  date  of  his  visit.  For  the  first  time  we  hear 
of  Meroe.  tlic  capital  city  of  the  Ethiopians.  Herodotus  knew  of 
the  desert  tliat  extends  to  the  westward  of  Egypt,  and  of  some  of 
its  oases,  and  of  tlie  mountains  that  divide  that  desert  from  tlie 
.Meditcrr.-Mic.-'.n  ■  n  tlie  west.  Tlic  Xile.  lie  tells  us.  was  known  to 
t'lc  I-'.g_\-|):-;iii-  .-'.<  far  as  the  c-inntr\-  of  i!;c  Autonv  il;c.  four  nioutlis' 
journey  bey^  nd  i;,e  C' nfincs  of  b-gypt  at  Syenc.     Iividcntly  he  knew 


NORTH     AFRICA  9 

448  B.  C.-60  A.  D. 

nothing  of  the  great  tributaries  of  the  Nile,  and  of  its  sources  the 
Egyptians  were  entirely  ignorant. 

About  one  hundred  years  after  Herodotus  came  the  conquest 
of  Egypt  by  Alexander;  ultimately  it  became  a  Greek  province. 
Under  the  Ptolemies  it  rose  to  a  great  height  of  power  and  pros- 
perity; commerce  and  navigation  were  encouraged;  the  Red  Sea 
coast  was  studded  with  commercial  centers,  and  Egypt  itself  was 
explored  far  to  the  south.  The  Highlands  of  Abyssinia  were  known 
and  the  Abyssinian  tributaries  of  the  Nile,  and  probably  also  the 
White  Nile,  which,  it  was  said,  flowed  from  some  lakes  in  the 
south;  the  great  bend  of  the  river  between  Syene  and  Meroe  was 
correctly  laid  down ;  the  coast  was  known  as  far  as  Cape  Guardafui. 
Thus  the  knowledge  of  the  Nile  region  had  grown  considerably 
during  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies. 

But  we  need  not  trace  in  detail  the  extension  of  the  map  of 
Africa  from  one  geographer  to  another.  Ptolemy,  the  famous  Alex- 
andrian astronomer,  who  flourished  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
years  after  Christ,  may  be  regarded  as  summing  up  all  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  continent  that  had  accumulated  since  Egypt  began  her 
career,  four  thousand  years  at  least  before  his  time.  About  one 
hundred  and  seventy  years  before  Ptolemy's  time  (35  b.  c.)  Egypt 
had  become  a  Roman  province,  Carthage  having  succumbed  to  the 
same  all-conquering  power  over  one  hundred  years  before.  The 
Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Romans,  were  therefore  the  first  Euro- 
pean powers  to  obtain  an  extensive  footing  in  Africa;  but,  after 
all,  it  was  only  along  its  northern  borders.  The  whole  of  North 
Africa  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire,  while  the  Phoenician 
and  Carthaginian  settlements  on  the  west  coast  appear  rapidly  to 
have  decayed  or  lapsed  into  barbarism.  The  Punic  Wars  and  the 
travels  of  Polybius  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 
extended  the  knowledge  of  Africa  to  the  south  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Before  Ptolemy's  time  traders  and  navigators  had  pushed 
round  Cape  Guardafui,  and  there  were  many  towns  and  trading 
centers  at  least  as  far  south  as  the  latitude  of  Zanzibar.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  early  in  the  Christian  era  traders  from  Egypt,  starting 
from  Red  Sea  ports,  sailed  around  by  Cape  Guardafui,  and  calling 
at  many  ports  on  the  way,  went  far  down  the  east  coast,  possibly 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Zambezi. 

Let  us  recall  the  fact  that  in  the  meantime  Egyptian,  Cartha- 
ginian and  Greek  in  Africa  had  all  become  subject  to  Roman  sway. 


10  AFRICA 

60-640  A.   D. 

The  world  had  gjown  and  civiHzation  had  extended,  and  with  it, 
no  iloubt.  trade  lind  expanded.  Along:  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
Sea  coasts  oi  Africa  and  down  by  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
traders  and  navij^ators  were  hnsy :  hnt  tlie  old  settlements  down  the 
west  coast  sccin  to  have  hccn  abantloned.  On  the  north  we  have 
no  record  oi  anv  expeditions  across  the  Sahara.  While  there  was 
constant  fi^litini;-  botwocn  native  princes  and  Roman  troops,  and 
bortler  warfare  frc(iuently  enough.  etTective  occupation,  except  at 
certain  points,  hardly  extended  beyond  the  coast  region  and  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Atlas  westward. 

We  read  of  an  cxi)edition  in  the  reign  of  Xero.  about  60  a.  d., 
which  I'.ad  for  its  object  a  search  for  the  sources  of  the  Xile — the 
first  of  a  long  scries  which  may  be  said  to  have  culminated  with 
Stanley's  exploration  of  the  Semliki.  The  expedition  was  under 
the  charge  of  a  military  officer  and  was  of  small  dimensions.  From 
the  descripticm  which  these  early  explorers  brought  back  of  immense 
marshes,  and  of  a  river  so  choked  up  by  vegetation  as  to  be  impass- 
able, it  has  been  thought  by  the  best  authorities  that  they  may 
really  have  reached  the  region  above  the  Sobat.  on  the  WHiite  Nile, 
about  Q°  north  latitude,  where  Baker  and  other  explorers  of  our 
own  century  have  had  to  struggle  with  a  similar  obstruction.  This, 
then,  probably  gives  us  the  limit  of  exploration  in  the  African 
interior  from  the  nortli,  and  of  precise  knowledge  of  that  interior 
until  the  time  wlien  the  proselytizing  Moslems  made  their  way 
across  the  Sahara.  Down.  then,  to  Ptolemy's  time  such  occupation 
of  Africa  as  had  been  effected  by  European  powers  scarcely  extended 
beyond  the  coasts. 

I'"or  centuries  after  the  Roman  occupation  of  Africa  and  after 
the  division  of  the  empire  there  was  almost  constant  fighting  along 
tlie  Mediterranean,  so  that  little  could  be  done  directly  either  for 
the  exploration  of  the  continent  or  for  its  development.  After  the 
decay  of  the  Roman  Empire  commercial  enterprise  seems  to  have 
ceased,  anrl  we  hear  little  of  Central  Africa.  The  next  really  great 
event  in  African  historv  after  the  Roman  conquest  was  the  s])rea(l 
of  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  bringing  with  it  into  Africa  hordes 
of  Arabian  conquerors  and  traders,  who  in  a  com])aratively  short 
time  took  possession  of  tlie  northern  half  of  the  continent, 
founded  states,  and  developed  a  commercial  activity  more  ex- 
tensive than  tliat  even  of  the  Phfcnicians.  This  Islamic  occupation 
of  Africa  has  iKjt  yet  ended,  but  now  that  the  European  pcjwers 


NORTH     AFRICA  11 

640-711    A.    D. 

have  taken  the  continent  in  hand  its  progress  is  likely  to  receive  an 
effective  check.  The  Arab  conquest  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  invasion  of  Egypt  in  640  a.  d.,  by  x\mru  Ibn  al  Aasse.  with 
4000  men.  This  was  followed  by  a  large  immigration  from  Arabia. 
By  664  Fezzan  had  been  taken,  Kairwan  founded,  and  an  advance 
made  to  the  borders  of  the  present  Morocco.  By  711  the  wdiole  of 
the  North  African  coast  lands  had  fallen  to  the  Arabs  and  become 
to  a  large  extent  Moslemized.  With  these  Arabs  came  new  life 
and  progress  in  agriculture,  in  commerce,  and  in  arts.  The  Ara- 
bians were  always  great  traders.  Wave  after  wave  of  Arab  immi- 
grants continued  to  pour  in,  large  cities  were  built,  and  the  people 
generally  raised  above  tlieir  condition  under  the  decayed  empire 
of  Rome.  By  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  religion  of 
Mohammed  had  crossed  the  Sahara  and  taken  a  firm  hold  of  the 
Sudan,  and  here  and  in  the  Niger  region  it  has  continued  to  spread 
down  to  our  own  times.  Vast  numbers  of  Arabs  also  migrated  at 
an  early  period  across  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Abyssinian  coast  and 
southward  to  Somaliland,  and  when  the  Portuguese,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  sailed  up  the  east  coast,  they  found  rich  Arab  cities  from 
Sofala  north  to  Magdoshu.  Meanwhile  Kordofan,  Darfur,  Wadai, 
Kanem,  Sokoto,  and  other  powerful  Sudan  states  took  shape  and 
developed  a  certain  kind  of  civilization,  though  it  took  time  to  bring 
them  all  under  Moslem  sway.  With  the  aid  of  the  newly-introduced 
camel  regular  caravan  routes  were  established  across  the  desert  from 
Timbuktu  (founded,  it  is  believed,  by  the  Tuareg,  in  the  twelfth 
century)  to  Morocco,  Algeria,  Fezzan,  and  Tripoli,  and  there  was 
developed  that  trade  in  ivory  and  slaves  which  is  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  the  Arab  of  the  present  day.  This  was  the 
first  opening  up  of  Africa  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  was  at  the  hands 
of  an  Asiatic,  not  a  European  people.  Tlie  obstacles  which  form 
so  deadly  a  barrier  to  European  exploration  and  settlement  scarcely 
affected  a  people  who  came  from  a  country  the  climate  of  which 
differed  but  little  from  that  of  Africa.  Indeed,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  hitherto  all  the  peoples  who  liad  taken  part  in  the  partition  of 
Africa — Egyptians,  Phanicians,  Greeks,  Romans — found  but  little 
difference  between  the  climate  of  North  Africa  and  that  of  the  lands 
of  their  origin. 

With  the  spread  of  the  Arabs  and  the  spread  of  Islam  not  only 
came  commerce  and  a  certain  amount  of  civilization,  but  an  in- 
creased knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  continent.     The  gov- 


la  A  F  U  I  C  A 

711-1200 

ernors  of  distant  provinces  liad  ti-*  make  rcj^^ular  reports  to  head- 
(juarters:  the  annual  jonrncv  to  Mecca  made  the  pilgrims  familiar 
with  the  countries  altMii;"  their  rcuite.  Learninj^  was  nourished  and 
promoted  in  \orth  Africa,  in  Asia,  in  Spain.  We  meet  with  a  long 
series  of  hisuuica!  and  lieoi^raphical  writers,  and  even  with  a  suc- 
cession of  travelers,  some  of  whom  penetrated  into  the  heart  of 
Africa.  The  intcuniation  thus  obtained  from  traveling  pilgrims, 
con(iuerors.  and  traders  found  its  way  into  the  works  of  Arab 
geographers  and  was  rudely  embodied  on  -\rab  maps.  The  famous 
map  of  Kdrisi.  ciinstructed  at  the  court  of  Count  Robert  of  Sicily 
in  the  twelfth  century,  was  based  on  information  derived  from  such 
numerous  and  varied  soin-ces.  Kano,  Kanem,  Darfur  in  the  Cen- 
tral Sudan  were  known,  and  Bcrbcra,  Zanzibar,  Sofala  in  the  east. 
Timbuktu  was  visited,  and  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Ibn 
I'.atuta  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century;  he  described  the 
Niger  as  far  as  Kuka.  Still,  at  its  best,  the  knowledge  of  the  Afri- 
can interior  thus  accumulated  was  scanty, 

Islamism  in  Xorth  Africa  was  of  the  most  aggressive  character, 
and  swej)t  away  almost  all  traces  of  previous  religions  and  previous 
ci\ilizations.  At  the  present  day  the  religion  of  Islam  is  still  of  a 
fanatical  character,  intensely  so  in  the  Central  Sudan,  where  there 
has  been  comparati\eIy  little  contact  with  Eurcjpeans,  but  of  a 
milder  type  on  the  cast  coast,  where  it  established  itself  indepentl- 
cjuly.  In  the  north  Islamism  was  established  at  the  point  of  the 
sword  :  in  the  east  it  was  introduced  by  the  Arab  and  Indian  traders, 
'i'hese  did  nul  exhibit  any  great  proselytizing  zeal ;  indeed,  so  far 
as  we  c:ui  learn,  the  Arab  traders  of  East  Africa  did  un[,  until  a 
Comparatively  recent  pcriiid,  n:i(ne  far  from  the  coast,  and,  excejjt 
perhajjs  to  the  south  of  the  Zambezi,  had  no  permanent  settlements 
in  the  interior. 

-About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  there  seems  to  have 
been  a  fre.-^h  migration  of  nomad  Arabs  from  Upper  Egypt  into 
W'l-i  Africa.  Ik-iwccn  tlie  elexenth  and  the  thirteenth  centuries  tlie 
religion  of  Mohammed  made  its  way  southward  and  f(nind  a  home 
in  Kanem.  on  the  north  of  Lake  Chad,  and  in  the  Sonrhai  or  Son- 
ghay  country,  lying  between  tliat  and  the  Middle  Xiger.  Probably 
also  about  the  same  jjcriod  Islamism  first  reached  those  Eulbe,  h'ula, 
or  J-ellatah  who  lia\e  ]jlayed  so  conspicu(jus  a  part  in  the  checkered 
history  of  tlie  W'e-tein  Sudan. 

The  first  seiilementb  of  Islamic  Asiatics  (jn  the  east  coast  took 


NORTH     AFRICA  13 

740-1900 

place  about  the  year  740  a.  d.^  when  poHtlcal  and  religious  dissen- 
sions broke  up  the  unity  of  the  faith.  Among-  the  states  and  towns 
founded  by  Arab  and  later  on  by  Persian  refugees  on  the  east  coast 
the  more  prominent  were  IMagdoshu,  Kilwa  or  Quiloa,  Brava, 
Melinde,  and  Mombaz  or  Mombasa.  jMagdoshu  was  supreme  in 
the  north  and  Kilwa  in  the  south.  Magdoshu  was  founded  between 
909  and  951  A.  D. ;  Kilwa  between  960  and  1000.  These  Arabian 
cities  and  communities  were  prosperous,  and  in  some  degree  civi- 
lized ;  but  they  were  deficient  in  military  organization.  They  had 
been  founded  by  traders,  emigrants,  and  exiles,  who  behaved 
peaceably  to  the  natives.  Each  settlement  seems  to  have  been 
either  an  independent  sultanate  or  republic,  the  inhabitants  caring- 
only  for  trade  with  the  natives  and  making  no  great  efforts  to 
proselytize  outside  their  own  retainers.  By  the  time  the  Portu- 
guese reached  the  east  coast  it  was  studded  with  populous  cities  as 
far  south  as  Sofala,  and  it  is  evident  that  there  was  regular  inter- 
course with  the  gold-yielding  region  south  of  the  Zambezi.  It 
was  not  until  the  fifteenth  century  that  Mohammedanism  found  its 
way  into  Somaliland  and  the  region  around  Zeila  and  Plarar. 

It  is  probable  that  Nubia  and  Kordofan  succumbed  to  the  new 
religious  invasion  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  As  late  as  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  whole  of  the  Central  Sudan,  and 
even  much  of  the  region  to  the  west  of  the  Niger,  largely  by  the 
efforts  of  the  fanatical  Fellatah,  had  come  under  the  sway  of  Islam. 
In  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
centuries  there  was  a  fresh  outburst  of  religious  fanaticism  on  the 
part  of  the  Fellatah,  which  spread  over  the  Senegambian  region, 
including  Sokoto  and  neighboring  countries  of  the  Niger,  and  car- 
ried the  religion  of  ]\Iohammed  down  even  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 
Thus,  in  our  own  day,  it  may  be  said,  generally  speaking,  that 
Islam  has  a  firm  hold  over  the  whole  of  Africa  north  of  10°  north 
latitude,  and  has  a  prevailing  influence  between  that  and  5''. 
Toward  the  east  it  comes  e\'en  farther  south,  to  the  shores  of  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  and  is  met  with  on  the  east  coast  df)\vn  to  Ca])o 
Delgado.  The  Arab  traders  and  slavers  who  have  found  their  way 
into  Central  .Africa  frum  Zanziljar  have  carried  Islam  in  a  mild 
form  as  far  as  Lake  Tangan}'ik;i  and  tlic  Upper  Congo;  but  scjuth 
of  5'^  north  it  (\nQ<,  not  scx'ni  destined  to  take  a  permanent  hold. 
And  in  the  C(nintrics  Wcitcrcd  by  tlie  Nig(,'r  and  its  tributaries,  c\'en 
though   the   I'"ellal:i!i    arc   dominant,    Mohammedanism   has    but  a 


14  A  F  R  I  (^  A 

1900 

slender  hold  nnionq-  the  hulk  of  the  people;  they  arc  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  patjans. 

The  distrihntion  (>f  Mohammedanism  is  of  importance,  as  it  is 
a  factor  to  he  taken  intu  account  in  the  attempt  to  spread  luiropean 
inilucncc.  Its  extension  was.  however,  something'  more  than  the 
spread  of  a  religion:  Islamism  hronght  with  it.  almost  without  fail, 
political  organi?:ation.  a  certain  amontit  of  civilization,  cominercial 
activity,  and  the  establishment  of  slavery  as  an  institution. 


Chapter    II 

THE  PORTUGUESE  IN  AFRICA.     1364-1580. 

THE  sailors  of  Venice  and  Genoa — which,  with  other  Italian 
cities,  were,  especially  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth 
centuries,  the  dominant  mercantile  and  maritime  states  of 
the  world — w^re  more  familiar  with  the  eastern  jMediterranean  and 
its  offshoots  than  with  its  western  waters. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  Dieppe  was  one  of  the  most  prosper- 
ous seaports  of  Europe.  Her  sailing  ships  ventured  everywhere, 
and  books  have  been  written  to  prove  that  as  early  as  1364  the  mer- 
chants of  Dieppe  had  formed  a  trading  station,  which  they  named 
Petit  Dieppe,  on  a  point  of  the  Guinea  Coast,  halfway  between  Cape 
Palmas  and  Sierra  Leone.  They  are  said  to  have  had  their  comp- 
toirs,  or  factories,  extending  from  Cape  Verde  to  the  Gold  Coast, 
and  to  have  built  a  church  at  El  Mina.  French  patriotism  naturally 
makes  the  most  of  the  feeble  evidence  on  which  the  story  of  these 
enterprises  is  founded.  If  the  occupation  of  the  West  African  coast 
by  Dieppe  merchant  adventurers  ever  took  place,  it  must  have  been 
of  very  brief  duration  and  exercised  no  influence  upon  the  perma- 
nent partition  of  the  continent.  There  is  much  more  probability 
in  the  statement  that  Italian  emigrants  found  their  way  down  the 
west  coast  as  far,  at  least,  as  Cape  Bojador  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  Rio  d'Oro,  Madeira,  and  the  Canaries 
are  found  on  maps  of  about  that  date.  It  was  in  tlie  first  decade  of 
the  fifteenth  century  that  the  Norman,  Jean  de  Bethencourt,  began 
the  conquest  of  the  Canaries. 

But  the  beginning  of  tlie  modern  exploration  and  occupation 
of  Africa  is  with  justice  dated  from  the  famous  siege,  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  141 5,  of  Ceuta  on  the  coast  of  Morocco,  opposite  Gibraltar. 
After  six  centuries  of  oppression  the  Moors  had  been  driven  from 
Portugal,  though  they  lingered  in  the  south  of  Spain.  When,  in 
1394,  Prince  Henry  (the  Infante  Dom  Henric|ue,  son  of  tlie  al)le 
and  brave  King  John  I.  and  PhiHppa,  daughter  of  the  h^nglish 
John  of  Gaunt),  who  has  come  to  be  known  as  *' the  Navigator," 


16  A  1"  u  1  c:  A 

1394-1433 

thoiiqfli  ho  himself  nnviq-.itrd  very  little,  was  born,  Portugal, 
thrmii^h  niativ  tr-'nls  niitj  slru.qi^U's  had  reached  a  position  rc- 
sjKctcd  and  foaied  hy  Iicr  oncniics,  CInistian  and  Saracen 
alike.  By  the  time  Prince  TTcnry  had  reached  the  apfc  of  man- 
hood, and  was  caj,^^  to  earn  his  knij^htly  sjnirs,  Khv^  John 
was  in  a  positi(>n  to  cany  his  operations  hcyond  the  shores  of  his 
own  country  and  to  strike  a  hlow  at  the  stron,q;liold  of  the  enemies 
(^f  Christendom.  At  the  stormincc  and  ca])tnre  of  Ceuta,  1  Mince 
Henry  and  his  two  elder  brothers  bore  themselves  bravely.  Prob- 
ably this  visit  to  the  coast  of  Africa  had  much  to  do  in  insjiirine;  the 
prince  with  a  burninj^  desire  to  trace  its  outline:  three  years  tliere- 
after  he  sent  out  the  first  of  those  expeditions  which  continued  year 
after  year  to  the  time  of  his  death,  and  earned  for  him  his  title  of 
'*  Xaviq:ator."  While  in  Africa  he  heard  much  from  the  Moors 
of  the  trade  by  caravan  t(^  Timbuktu  and  Guinea,  and  of  the  reported 
wealth  of  the  interior  of  the  continent.  A  man  of  the  prince's 
intellici^encc  had  doubtless  heard  of  the  discoveries  of  the  Arabs  in 
Africa  and  elsewhere;  nor  is  it  an  extravag"ant  supjiosition  that  he 
had  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  by  sailii^cf  around  the  coast  of 
Africa  to  such  places  as  Sofala,  Kilwa,  and  Zan;^ibar,  familiar  to 
Arab  .q"C"i;"ra])]icrs.  he  would  be  able  to  make  his  way  to  India. 
There  is  no  doulit  that  India  had,  lone;-  before  the  rounding  of  the 
cape,  became  the  i^'oal  oi  I\)rtu^"uese  navigators. 

Much  of  ti;c  foreii'u  trade  of  Europe  was  still  in  the  hands  of 
tl'.e  W'uetian^.  whose  sliijjs  met  tlie  caravans  which,  passing  through 
Mwliammc'lan  countries,  brought  to  the  shores  of  the  Levant  the 
treasures  of  Vr.c  h'ast.  A  sea-route  to  India  v/ould  destroy  this 
monnpoly.  \\'iic!i  l\)rtuguese  activity  in  Africa  l)cgan,  X'enice  was 
at  tlie  Iiciglit  of  her  ])ower  and  mercantile  ])rosj)erity.  The  various 
etb.nica!  groups  which  C(Tmpr)se  the  population  of  luiropc  had  set- 
tled down  roughly  witliin  the  areas  they  now  occupy,  and  were 
being  segregated  into  tlie  states  of  modern  lun'ope.  The  Moslem 
invasion,  which  tlueatened  to  swamp  the  infant  civilization  of  the 
\\'c-t,  l;ad  been  rej)ul-e(l  and  lingered  only  in  tlie  corners  of 
the  C(.>nt:nent.  Ihit  tlie  Turks  had  barely  begun  their  I'-uropean 
career,  run!  it  war^  .niy  toward  tlie  end  of  llie  next  century  (tiic  six- 
teenth) that  :'.iey  were  (lri\en  hack  fr(tin  C'einral  luu'ope  into  the 
Pialk'an  Peri:n-nla.  Jlenry  Y.  reigned  in  luigland  when  Prince 
Henry  t::e  .\a\  iL;alor  >ent  out  his  first  expedition,  and  Henry  \Tl. 
(the  patron  of  Cab(jt)   was  on  the  throne  when  the  cape  was  first 


THE     PORTUGUESE  17 

1433-1471 

rounded.     Columbus  was  born  about  twenty  years  before  Prince 
Henry  died,  and  Luther  about  twenty  years  after. 

Ceuta  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  annexation  in  Africa 
by  a  modern  European  power.  Into  a  detailed  history  of  the  Por- 
tuguese exploration  of  Africa  it  is  not  of  course  possible  to  enter; 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  successive  stages  must  suffice.  In  order  to  be 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  contemplated  scene  of  operations,  Prince 
Henry  established  himself  upon  the  lonely  point  of  Sagres  (near 
Cape  Vincent),  wdiich  may  be  said  to  overhang  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  Three  years  after  the  siege  of  Ceuta  Prince  Henry  began 
his  great  enterprise,  his  first  goal  being  Cape  Bojador,  then  regarded 
as  a  veritable  Cape  of  Storms.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1434  that 
Gil  Eannes  succeeded  in  rounding  it.  After  that  point  had  been 
passed  the  outline  of  the  A\>st  African  coast  was  followed  down  by 
expedition  after  expedition.  But  it  was  not  till  1441-1442  that  the 
next  prominent  cape  (Blanco)  was  doubled,  and  the  Rio  d'Oro 
reached  by  Antonio  Gonsalvez  and  Nuno  Tristam.  Gonsalvez 
brought  home  with  him  some  gold  dust  and  ten  slaves.  The  slaves 
were  presented  by  Prince  Plenry  to  Pope  Martin  V.,  who  thereupon 
conferred  upon  Portugal  the  right  of  possession  and  sovereignty 
of  all  the  country  that  might  be  discovered  between  Cape  Bojador 
and  the  Indies.  The  River  Senegal  was  reached  and  Cape  Verde 
doubled  in  1446  by  Dinis  Dias,  and  two  years  later  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Sierra  Leone  was  reached.  The  voyages  of  Cadomosto  in 
1455  and  1456  to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  the  Senegal,  and  the 
Gambia,  were  remarkable  for  the  information  which  he  obtained 
concerning  Timljuktu  and  the  countries  in  the  interior;  concerning 
the  trade  in  gold  and  ivor}-  with  the  coast,  and  the  caravan  trade  of 
the  Mediterranean.  It  was  not  till  1462  that  Pedro  de  Cintra  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  three  degrees  beyond  Sierra  Leone.  Prince  Henry 
had  died  two  years  before,  but  his  great  undertaking  was  continued 
by  Alfonso  V.  and  John  II;  during  Henry's  lifetime  1800  miles  of 
West  African  coast,  from  Cape  Xun  southward,  had  been  passed 
out.  Before  the  prince's  death  a  company  had  been  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  on  a  trade  in  slaves  and  gold  dust  between 
Portugal  and  Africa,  this  ijcing'  the  earliest  of  those  companies  which 
have  formed  so  prominent  a  feature  in  the  European  connection 
with  the  continent.  The  first  expedition  dispatched  by  tlie  company 
returned  with  a  cargo  of  two  hundred  slaves.  In  1471  the  Guinea 
coast  was  doubled  and  followed  round  by  tlie  Bight  of  Benin  as  far 


18  A  F  R  I  C  A 

1448-1497 

as  the  (Icltn  of  the  River  Ocrovc,  where  tlie  Portuguese  were  content 
to  rest  for  thirteen  years.  lia\  ing  been  tlie  first  Europeans  to  cross 
the  equator. 

So  earlv  as  1448  Prince  Henry  had  begfun  a  fort  on  tlie  Bay  of 
Arpiiin.  south  of  Cape  Hlanco.  This  fort  seems  to  have  been  rebuilt 
in  I4^>i  anil  for  many  years  afterward  continued  to  be  the  head- 
quarters of  Portujiuesc  commercial  operations  in  West  Africa.  This 
was  in  the  rcij^n  of  John  II.,  on  whom  the  Pope  conferred  the  title 
of  *'  Lord  of  Ciuinca."  a  title  attached  to  the  crown  of  Portuj^al 
down  to  our  own  time.  But  probably  the  first  re.t;;"ular  lunopean 
settlement  or  colony  established  on  the  Continent  of  Africa  was  on 
the  riold  C(\ist.  at  a  spot  to  which  the  name  of  St.  Jorj^c  da  Mina 
(now  j^enerally  known  as  El  Mina)  was  g'iven.  and  where  the  Por- 
tuguese tlag'  was  raised  in  January,  1482.  But  long  before  this 
traffic  in  gold  from  which  the  Gold  Coast  g'ets  its  name  had  begun 
and  attempts  had  been  made  to  establish  relations  witli  the  interior. 

In  1482  exploration  was  again  started  with  rencued  vigor. 
In  that  and  the  two  following  years  Diogo  Cam  pushed  his  way  for 
twelve  hundred  miles  south  of  the  Ogove,  discovering  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo,  up  which  he  sailed  for  some  distance.  The  year  after 
Diogo's  return  Bartholomew  Diaz  set  out,  and  all  unknowing 
passed  the  southwest  point  of  Africa  and  pushed  eastward  as  far 
as  Algoa  Bay ;  it  was  only  on  his  return  journey  that  he  sighted 
that  cape  which  he  called  the  Cape  of  Storms,  but  which  King  John 
rechristcned  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Thus  tlie  turning-point  in  the  history  of  Africa  was  reached, 
for  Diaz  had  almost  come  to  within  hail  of  the  Aral)  settlements 
on  the  east  coast ;  the  true  contour  of  the  continent  had  been  gradu- 
ally outHned  through  a  series  of  years  of  inflomitablc  effort  and 
perseverance.  The  most  famous  of  all  these  Portuguese  navigators. 
the  first  to  reach  India  l)v  the  cape  route.  Vasco  da  Gama,  com- 
pleted the  work  f)f  his  predecessors.  n')t.  however,  until  ten  years 
after  tlie  return  of  Diaz.  Meantime  (1487)  I'edro  de  Covilham  had 
gone  to  India  by  the  Kcd  Sea  route.  On  his  return  he  visited  Sofala 
and  (itlier  Arab  settlements,  heard  of  the  gold  mines  in  tlie  interior, 
and  \iMted  Abyssinia  in  search  of  the  mysterious  Christian  ])()ten- 
tate.  Prc-ter  John.  When  \\asco  da  Gama  set  out  ^n  liis  famous 
voyage  in  1407  he  knew,  fr'tm  tlie  information  sent  home  by  Covil- 
ham. that  Sofala  wouM  be  readied  by  doubling  the  cape,  and  that 
thence  it  was  ])lain  sailing  to  India. 


THE     PORTUGUESE 


19 


1497 


That  same  year,  1497,  marked  the  discovery  of  Newfoundland 
by  Sebastian  Cabot,  five  years  after  Columbus  had  lighted  upon  the 
New  World.  This  great  discovery,  we  may  be  sure,  had  a  marked 
effect  in  retarding  the  exploration  and  development  of  the  African 
continent;  the  energy  w^iich  was  diverted  across  the  Atlantic,  and 
which  was  devoted  with  such  marvelous  success  to  the  peopling  of 


OCEAN 
1SO6 


^^ j^a^cllatl _ /5i2 ^_ 


DISCOVERIES 

AtJOMe  THE  AFRICAN 


America  by  Europeans  and  the  development  of  its  resources,  would 
no  doubt  have  been  directed  to  tlie  much  less  hopeful  continent.  At 
the  same  time  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  enhanced  the  value 
of  Africa  in  one  respect,  for  the  rapid  destruction  of  the  feeble  na- 
tives of  the  West  Indies  rendered  imported  labor  indispensable  for 
the  development  of  the  islands.  But  an  ample  supply  was  found 
among  the  hardy  and  unfortunate  children  of  Ilam,  and  tlie  trade 
in  men  soon  exceeded  in  value  all  the  other  exports  from  the  Dark 


JM)  A  F  RICA 

1497-1650 

Continent.  It  wns  only  wlicn  America  was  all  but  parceled  out  and 
filled  up  that  lujrojiean  powers,  in  search  of  foreig^i  possessions, 
seriously  turned  their  attention  to  Africa. 

On  November  22,  1497,  Vasco  da  Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of 
Good  Mope.  A  month  later  he  touched  at  and  named  Natal.  lie 
proceeiled  leisurely  alongf  the  coast,  callinp^  at  Sofala,  Mozambi(iue, 
Melinde.  Mombasa,  and  other  places,  all  of  which  he  found  in  pos- 
session of  the  Arabs,  prosperous  and  flourishing;^,  as  well  they  might 
l)e.  for  they  had  been  there  for  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Islam. 
But  India  was  the  destination  of  Gama,  and  the  concjuest  and  set- 
tlement of  Africa  were  left  to  others.  As  we  have  seen,  occupation 
had  already  bei^un  on  the  west  coast  and  was  continued  there.  Diog'o 
Cam  took  back  with  him  to  Lisbon  in  1485  some  natives  from  the 
Coni^fo,  and  returned  with  an  army  of  priests.  In  a  remarkably 
short  time  tlie  king-  and  natives  of  the  "  Kins^dom  of  Coni^o,"  lying 
to  the  south  of  the  lower  river,  were  converted.  The  capital  was 
renamed  San  Salvador.  The  king  and  chiefs  were  given  pompous 
Portuguese  titles;  churches  were  erected  and  an  appearance  of  civi- 
lization prevailed.  By  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  San 
Salvador  had  become  a  great  center  of  Portuguese  influence  and 
the  chief  town  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  there.  Churches  and 
lK)uses  had  been  built  and  the  priests  were  supreme.  A  sudden 
invasion  of  a  powerful  wandering  tribe,  known  as  Jaggas,  ra])idly 
destroyed  all  this;  but  by  1560  the  Jaggas  were  expelled,  and  San 
Salvador  waxed  more  important  than  ever.  Piy  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  is  said  to  have  had  40,000  inhabitants. 
The  king's  palace,  of  wood  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  is  stated  to 
have  been  spacious  and  luxurious.  There  was  a  cathedral  and  many 
churches  and  fine  private  houses.  Jesuits,  priests,  and  monks  had 
imposing  mansions,  and  there  was  a  general  appearance  of  peace 
and  prosperity.  The  king,  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  century, 
claimed  so\ereignty  over  an  extensive  territory,  including  Angola, 
made  over  to  the  I'ortuguese  the  country  of  the  Sova,  or  chief  who 
ruled  over  the  region  lying  between  San  Salvador  and  the  Lower 
Congo,  doun  to  the  sea.  The  Sova  objected  to  this  and  o])p(jsed 
th.e  Portuguese  domination  by  force  of  arms.  'Jlie  result  was  not 
only  tlie  exclusion  of  the  Portuguese  from  the  territory  ceded  to 
them,  but  also  tlie  hostility  of  the  King  of  C(jngo,  who  renounced 
the  domination  fjf  Portugal.  I'rom  this  time  until  the  date  of  the 
Berlin  Congress  San  Salvador  and  the  kingdom  of  Congo  were 


THE     PORTUGUESE  21 

1505-1520 

really  independent.  The  town  itself  fell  into  decay,  and  its  churches 
and  other  buildings  went  to  ruin,  so  that  now  San  Salvador  is  sim- 
ply a  native  towii  of  mud  huts,  and  it  is  difficult  for  the  traveler  to 
detect  amid  the  wreck  any  remains  of  its  former  greatness.  Still 
among  the  natives,  in  their  language  and  customs,  may  be  detected 
some  remnant  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  influence ;  the  king  still  bears 
a  Portuguese  name.  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  capital  of  the  west 
coast  colonies,  was  founded  in  1578,  and  other  settlements  were 
planted  along  the  west  coast.  The  neighboring  territories,  Angola, 
Benguela,  and  Alossamedes,  were  gradually  taken  in  and  stations 
planted  in  the  interior ;  occupation  here  was  comparatively  effective. 

On  the  opposite  coast,  Sofala  was  taken  in  1505  by  Pedro  de 
Anhaya,  who  made  the  king  tributary  to  Portugal.  Tristan  da 
Cunha  captured  Sokotra  and  Lamu  in  1507,  and  in  the  same  year 
Duarte  de  Mello  founded  the  fort  of  Mozambique.  Quiloa  had 
been  taken  in  1506  and  the  Portuguese  established  themselves  there 
in  1508.  Other  cities  along  the  coast — Melinde,  Mombasa,  Zanzi- 
bar Island,  Magdoshu — succumbed  in  time,  as  did  Sena  and  other 
settlements  on  the  Lower  Zambezi.  Though  she  used  it  as  a  place  of 
call  for  Portuguese  and  other  vessels,  Portugal  never  established 
herself  at  the  cape.  At  all  these  places,  and  indeed  all  along  the 
east  coast,  the  Moors,  as  the  Portuguese  called  them — that  is  to  say, 
Moslem  Arabs — had  established  themselves,  had  built  up  a  flourish- 
ing commerce,  and  erected  handsome  and  well-fortified  cities.  But 
there  seems  to  have  been  no  sort  of  union  or  confederation  among 
these  Arab  settlements;  each  city  was  under  its  own  sheik,  who 
exercised  more  or  less  jurisdiction  over  the  neighboring  territory. 
It  was  not  always  an  easy  task  for  the  Portuguese  to  overcome  the 
sheiks  or  sultans  of  these  Arab  cities  or  states;  and  the  cruelties 
which  were  characteristic  of  the  adventurers  of  the  period  had  free 
play.  Mombasa  and  Melinde  were  burned  down  more  than  once, 
and  little  tenderness  was  shown  even  to  women  and  children. 

The  whole  of  the  east  coast,  from  Lourengo  Marquez  to  Cape 
Guardafui,  was  thus  virtually  in  the  power  of  the  Portuguese  by 
the  year  1520.  As  the  result  of  all  the  operations  referred  to,  by 
the  close  of  the  sixtecn.th  century  the  contour  of  the  African  coast 
was  at  last  laid  down  with  surprising  accuracy.  The  subsequent 
degeneration  of  the  Portuguese  should  not  blind  tlie  student  to  the 
glory  of  this  great  acliievcment. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  P(jrtuguese  occupation  there  seems 


fta  A  F  U  I  V  A 

1B20 

to  have  been  more  activity  on  the  west  coast  tlian  on  the  east,  and 
there  existed  but  Httle  rivah-y  witli  other  powers.  The  inllucnce  of 
Portutjal  in  the  Conpfo  rcp^ion  and  in  Angola  continued  to  extend, 
!xith  on  the  coast  and  toward  tlie  interior,  as  also  on  tlie  Guinea 
coast  and  north  to  the  i'ay  of  Arp^uin.  On  the  east  coast  the  Arab 
and  Indian  traders  continued  tlioir  commercial  operations  under 
Portuf^iese  auspices  and  to  the  profit  of  Portuguese  officials  and 
Portuguese  traders.  Attention  was  very  soon  directed  to  the  gold 
mines  of  Manika.  and  the  powerful  "empire  of  Monomotapa  "  in 
the  interior.  That  at  the  time  when  the  Portuguese  first  established 
themselves  on  the  cast  coast  there  was  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi 
a  king  or  chief,  wliosc  official  title  was  ATonomotapa.  who  lorded 
it  over  a  number  of  smaller  chiefs,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  Accord- 
ing to  Pigafetta  and  other  authorities  there  was  a  similar  potentate 
who  ruled  on  the  north  of  the  Zambezi,  as  far  as  the  confines  of  the 
kingdom  of  Prester  John  (Abyssinia).  Along  the  coast  were 
smaller  chiefships — Sofala,  Mozambique,  Quiloa,  Mombasa,  Me- 
linde:  these,  of  course,  were  Arab  settlements.  Portuguese  writers 
describe  the  coast  chiefs  or  kings  and  their  wives  as  having  been 
almost  white,  and  richly  dressed  and  adorned.  These  were,  no 
doubt.  Asiatics  settled  on  the  coast.  Of  the  great  interior  king- 
doms, and  esj)ccially  that  of  the  Monomotapa.  the  most  wonderful 
descriptions  are  gi\cn.  Tales  are  told  of  the  M(inomotapa's  capital : 
his  palace,  with  is  innumerable  halls  and  chambers  richly  adorned 
with  tapestry,  of  the  army  of  Amazons,  of  the  rich  dresses  of  tlie 
king  and  his  daughters,  of  the  ceremonies  of  his  court,  of  the  tribute 
bruuglit  to  him  by  outlying  chiefs,  and  many  oilier  details,  as  if  the 
African  chief  had  been  a  great  semi-civilized  ])otcntate  of  Central 
Asia.  We  l',a\e  no  reason  to  believe  that  these  descriptions  are 
founded  on  tlie  direct  observations  of  trustworlliv  T^)rtuguesc  trav- 
elers; they  seem  to  have  been  obtained  from  the  Arab  settlers  on 
the  coast,  or  to  have  filtered  down  through  native  channels  from 
ilie  interior.  Judging  from  the  description  given  of  the  kings  and 
I^rinces  of  tlie  king-hnn  of  Congo,  the  glowing  accounts  of  the 
glories  nf  the  Monomotapa  may  simply  be  the  old  chroniclers'  way 
of  describing  wliat  might  ha\"e  been  seen  in  our  r)\vn  days  at  the 
"  court  ■'  i»f  t'lc  King  of  Daliomey  or  of  the  potentate  of  Tganda. 

"  Kingdr.m^  "  I'kc  tlial  of  the  Monomota])a  have  been  common 
cnouL;'!  in  .Xfriin.  S  iiic  powerful  chief  established  his  ssvay  o\er 
his  nei'd)bor>.  a>  the  Miiato  \'anvo  did   in  l.umla   for  some  three 


THE     PORTUGUESE  23 

1566 

centuries,  or  as  Chaka  did  some  sixty  years  ago  in  the  Zulu  coun- 
tries, as  Lobengula's  father  did  in  the  Matabele  region.  It  is  very 
doubtful  if  the  iMonomotapa  was  more  advanced,  more  civilized, 
than  any  of  these ;  certainly  not  more  than  was  the  late  King  Mtesa 
of  Uganda,  who  after  all  was  but  a  barbarous  potentate  living  in  a 
big  hut,  surrounded  by  a  great  kraal.  With  regard  to  these  African 
"  empires  "  the  words  of  Andrade  Corvo  in  his  valuable  work,  "  As 
Provindas  Ultramarinas"  are  well  worth  quoting;  referring  to 
the  state  of  affairs  in  Eastern  Africa  at  the  period  when  the  Philips 
of  Spain  held  Portugal,  he  says :  "  There  is  no  part  of  the  world 
which  offers  a  better  example  of  the  weakness  of  power  than  among 
the  savage  rulers  of  the  interior  of  Africa,  where,  at  a  moment's 
notice,  a  potentate  is  overthrown  and  a  new  empire  founded,  where 
before  only  existed  wandering  and  dispersed  tribes.  And  this  new 
empire  increases,  strengthens,  and  grows  with  wonderful  rapidity, 
and  extends  and  spreads  itself  through  vast  regions,  subjugating 
extensive  provinces  and  incorporating  in  itself  various  powers,  until 
it  finally  becomes  so  great  as  to  be  wholly  unmanageable,  and  then, 
with  the  same  rapidity  with  which  it  came  into  existence,  it  dwindles 
down  to  insignificance  and  crumbles  away." 

One  of  the  most  famous  and  earliest  of  Portuguese  expeditions 
into  the  interior  was  that  made  by  Francisco  Barreto  in  1566.  Bar- 
reto  seems  to  have  had  a  distinguished  career  in  India  before  he 
was  shifted  to  the  government  of  Monomotapa;  for  at  this  time, 
and  until  the  seventeenth  century,  East  Africa  was  included  in  the 
government  of  India.  Barreto's  force  is  said  to  have  consisted  of 
a  thousand  men  of  arms,  besides  a  large  number  of  Portuguese  cav- 
aliers, eager  to  distinguish  themselves.  With  this  force  he  ascended 
the  Zambezi  as  far  as  Sena,  and  then  marched  along  the  south  bank 
of  the  river  to  a  place  named  Mengos,  the  chief  of  which  had  re- 
volted against  the  Monomotapa.  Barreto  had  agreed  to  chastise 
the  chief  on  condition  that  the  Monomotapa  woukl  permit  him  to 
proceed  through  his  territory  to  the  gold  mines  of  Manika.  But,  ac- 
cording to  the  latest  authoritative  version  of  the  story,  Barreto  went 
down  to  Mozambique  and  died  two  days  after  his  return  to  Sena, 
at  which  place  and  at  Tetc  lie  Iirid  founded  forts.  Vasco  Fernandez 
Homem  started  a  few  years  later  from  Sofala  and  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  mines  of  Manika.  where  lie  witnessed  the  j^irimitive 
process  of  extracting  gold,  but  his  expedition  also  ended  in  disaster. 
Even  before  Barreto,  a  niis.sii)nary  priest,  Gonsalvo  da  Silvcira,  in 


X4  AFRICA 

1560-1630 

1560  succeeded  in  reaching-  the  territory  of  the  Monomotapa :  at 
first  well  received,  he  was  i)ut  to  death  a  year  after  at  the  instigfa- 
tion  of  the  Arahs  as  a  spy;  tliis  sccnis  to  sliow  that  the  latter  had 
considcrahlc  inllucncc  with  the  native  chiefs.  The  result  of  the 
reallv  disastiHMis  expeditions  of  Barreto  and  ITomcni  was  tliat  tlie 
Purtiiqfucse  j^o\erinncnt  of  the  Monomotapa  was  aholished  as 
(piickly  as  it  had  hccn  erected.  We  read  in  the  paj^cs  of  later  Por- 
tui^ucse  writers  of  \ari(Uis  other  expeditions  into  tlic  interior,  of 
nn'ssionarics  huildin.c;'  churches  in  Manika,  in  tlic  region  wc  now 
call  Mashonalaiid.  westward  as  far  as  Tati,  nortluvard  alon.i"^  the 
Zatnhe/i.  and  in  tlic  country  between  Manika  and  the  coast,  h'airs, 
as  they  were  called.  /.  f..  factories  or  trading"  centers,  were  estab- 
lished, and  forts  were  built;  th's  went  on  throuo;li  the  seventeenth 
and  eig^hteenth  centuries.  It  wtg  only  disasters  in  India,  and  tlie 
discovery  of  gold  and  diamonds  in  Brazil,  that  led  to  the  practical 
abandonment  of  the  mines  and  f'^irs  and  churches  in  the  Monomo- 
t:ipa's  empire.  That,  however,  the  Portuguese  had  stations  or  estab- 
lishments of  s<nnc  kind  as  far  in  the  interior  as  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Mashonaland  plateau,  in  the  early  days  of  their  occupation, 
mr.si  be  admitted,  unless  we  are  prepared  to  treat  the  historians  and 
clironiclcrs  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries 
as  writers  of  fiction. 

According  to  the  authority  of  Boccaro.  who  was  keeper  of  the 
archiNCs  at  Goa.  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
I'jnpcror  of  Monomotapa  (as  he  was  called)  in  1607  ceded  to 
tlie  Portuguese  all  the  mining  right's  of  his  territories  b}-  a  treaty,  the 
original  of  which  still  exists  in  the  Goa  arc!ii\es.  Hut  the  celcbraled 
Treaty  of  Monomotapa.  which  was  adduced  in  connection  with  the 
Delagoa  Bay  arbitration,  and  given  more  recently  as  a  proof  that 
Portng.'d  liad  a  claim  to  Mashonaland,  is  dated  1630;  it  has  the 
"  empcr<;r's  "  mark  (X)  and  a  host  of  signatures  of  Portuguese 
clVicials.  It  would  be  against  the  weight  of  evidence  to  deny  the 
genuinenc-s  of  those  two  treaties.  It  must  be  admitted,  we  tear, 
that  had  Pi^rtugal  been  a  strong  power  like  Germany  or  b'rance  the 
treaties  would  have  had  much  more  weight  with  the  P)rit!>h  Gov- 
ernment in  adjusting  the  claims  to  Mashonaland.  l>ut  it  is  equally 
certain  tliat  if  citlicr  of  these  powers  had  obtaincfl  such  a  claim  it 
Wiu''!  not  have  neglected  and  abandoned  the  territory  as  I\irtugal 
had  (lone,  'ilirrjughout  his  woik  ('or\o  writes  in  the  most  despair- 
ing tone  of  the  criminal  nii.^num.'f.'X'ir.en'  uliich  prevailed  innn  the 


THE     PORTUGUESE  25 

1630-1885 

beginning  in  these  east  coast  possessions.  But  little  real  effort  was 
made  to  develop  the  gold  mines,  while  all  other  commercial  re- 
sources were  neglected,  the  traffic  in  slaves  being  the  one  thing  that 
flourished  and  prospered.  Portuguese  writers  tell  us  that  at  one 
time  the  chiefs  of  Sofala  rendered  as  rent  for  their  lands  eighty 
bars  of  gold  (said  to  be  equal  to  $12,500,000).  That  this  quantity 
of  gold  was  obtained  annually  in  early  times  from  the  Manika  gold 
mines  is  possible ;  but  no  available  statistics  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  show  a  tithe  of  the  above  sum  of  gold  among 
the  exports.  Summing  up  the  history  of  the  Portuguese  possessions 
in  East  Africa  during  the  seventeenth  century,  Corvo  says :  "  It 
was  one  full  of  woes  for  our  colonies  in  the  east,  and  particularly  in 
East  Africa.  The  Kaffirs  in  the  south  and  the  Arabs  in  the  north 
attacked  our  dominions  and  punished  us  most  cruelly  for  our  frank- 
ness. At  times  victors,  and  at  others  beaten  on  all  sides,  we 
dragged  out  a  sad  existence  in  Mozambique,  without  progressing 
in  colonization,  without  developing  commerce  or  industries,  and 
without  the  famous  gold  and  silver  mines  giving  the  marvelous 
results  which  were  expected  from  them,  and  which  the  government 
wished  zealously  to  guard  for  itself.  Moreover,  in  proportion  as 
the  colony  goes  on  decaying,  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  governors 
continue  to  increase;  and  corruption  has  likewise  increased  more 
and  more." 

Of  the  condition  of  things  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  Corvo 
gives  an  equally  lamentable  account.  Even  such  places  as  Inham- 
bane,  Sofala,  Sena,  and  Tete,  he  speaks  of  as  abandoned;  the  an- 
cient commerce  of  the  former  two,  so  flourishing  in  the  days  of  the 
Arab,  was  actually  extinguished.  The  real  nature  of  the  connection 
of  Portugal  with  East  Africa,  and  of  what  she  has  done  for  the 
commercial  development  of  the  country  during  the  centuries  she 
has  been  planted  on  the  coast,  is  well  summed  up  in  the  words  of 
the  same  author :  *'  The  early  Portuguese  did  no  more  than  substi- 
tute themselves  for  the  Moors,  as  they  called  them,  in  the  parts  that 
they  occupied  on  the  coast;  and  their  influence  extended  to  the 
interior  very  little,  unless,  indeed,  through  some  ephemeral  alliances 
of  no  value  whatever,  or  through  missionaries,  or  without  any  prac- 
tical or  lasting  results.  The  true  conquest  is  still  (1885)  to  be 
made."  It  is  clear  from  the  work  of  this  authoritative  Portuguese 
writer  that,  in  his  opinion,  Portugal  never  possessed  actual  domin- 
ion in  any  of  the  territories  north  and  south  of  the  Zambezi,  except 


S6  AFRICA 

1580-1700 

perhaps  in  a  few  coast  towns.  Even  when  due  allowance  is  made 
for  Corvo's  partisanship,  we  cannot  believe  that  he  deliberately  mis- 
represented facts. 

Corvo's  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  the  course  of  events  in 
Zambezi  itself.  The  native  tribes  carried  on  their  wars  as  before. 
The  Monomotapa's  empire  was  not  broken  up  until  some  time  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  though  it  must  have  been  tottering  long 
before.  Probably  by  that  time  the  irresistible  Zulu  had  made  his 
way  south  of  the  Zambezi,  and  was  sweeping  all  before  him  as  he 
did  on  the  north.  The  Portuguese  were  helpless  to  prevent  this, 
as  they  were  helpless  some  seventy  years  ago  to  prevent  Loben- 
gula's  father  from  taking  possession  of  Matabeleland,  the  old 
"  empire  "  of  Monomotapa. 

The  importance  of  the  subject  in  view  of  recent  events  must 
bo  the  excuse  for  following  the  connection  of  Portugal  with  East 
Africa  down  practically  to  the  present  time.  By  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  centuiy  of  all  her  East  African  conquests  she  possessed 
only  Sofala.  Mozambique,  and  Alombana.  It  is  but  just  to  recall 
the  fact  that  in  1580  Portugal  became  united  to  Spain.  During  the 
sixty  years  till  1640  that  the  union  lasted,  it  was  peculiarly  humili- 
ating to  Portugal,  and  left  the  little  country,  that  had  before  shown 
such  phenomenal  energy,  spiritless  and  apparently  exhausted.  Up 
to  the  date  of  this  subjection  it  may  be  fairly  said  that  Portugal  had 
in  her  power  all  the  coasts  of  Africa,  excepting  those  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Red  Sea. 


Chapter  III 

THE    BEGINNING   OF    RIVALRY.     1520-1769 

BEFORE  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Portuguese  had 
.  erected  forts  at  Arguin  and  El  Mina,  had  established  trad- 
'  ing  factories  on  the  Senegal,  the  Gambia,  the  Rio  Grande, 
on  the  Gold  Coast  and  the  Gulf  of  Benin,  and  on  the  Congo.  Colo- 
nies had  been  planted  on  Madeira,  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  the 
Island  of  St.  Thomas.  By  about  1520,  as  we  have  seen,  Portugal 
had  made  herself  mistress  of  all  the  coasts  of  Africa,  excepting 
those  of  the  Alediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  even  in  the  latter, 
a  few  years  later,  attempts  were  made  to  obtain  possession  of  Mas- 
sawa  and  other  ports,  and  to  establish  Portuguese  influence  over 
Abyssinia.  While  Africa  was  valued  bv  Portugal  for  its  own 
sake,  for  its  gold,  and  ultimately  for  its  slaves,  it  was,  no  doubt 
(especially  the  east  coast  stations),  regarded  mainly  as  a  halfway 
house  to  India  and  the  East;  for  it  was  the  conquest  of  the  latter 
which  absorbed  the  energies  of  Portugal  during  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  centur}^  The  triumphs  of  the  conqnistadores  in  Asia 
far  excelled  all  that  was  accomplished  in  Africa,  both  in  brilliancy, 
extent,  and  value  of  commercial  results.  But  the  glory  of  Por- 
tugal was  even  more  shortlived  in  Asia  than  in  Africa.  During 
much  of  the  sixteenth  century  she  had  no  rivals  in  the  latter  con- 
tinent; for  England,  Spain,  and  France  were  absorbed  with  the 
conquest  of  the  New  World.  Not  until  our  own  times  was  there 
any  activity  on  the  African  continent  to  be  compared  with  that 
which,  within  a  centurv  after  its  discovery,  made  America  an 
appanage  of  Europe.  Rivals  were  slow  to  enter  the  African  field, 
and  when  they  did  they  were  kept  at  bay  by  ships  of  Portugal.  After 
referring  to  the  forts  established  at  a  few  places  on  the  west 
coast,  Postlethwayte  says:  "By  virtue  of  the  possession  of  these 
they  not  only  claimed,  and  for  many  years  enjoyed,  the  right  in  and 
to  all  the  said  land,  but  likewise  seized  and  confiscated  the  ships 
of  all  other  nations  as  often  as  tlicy  found  any  of  these  traders  in 
any  parts  of  the  said  coast." 

37 


]I8  A  r  U  I  C  A 

1450-1554 

But  this  nion(">polv  was  shortlived,  at  least  on  tlie  west  coast. 
Hosman  tells  ns  that  '*  formerly  the  riirtuguese  served  for  setting 
di>i:fs  to  spring  the  game,  which,  as  soon  as  they  had  done,  was 
sci/eil  bv  t)lhers.'*  l-ong  l)cfore  Barreto's  disastrous  expedition 
into  the  country  of  the  Monomotapa  the  export  of  slaves,  not  only 
to  America,  but  to  lunope.  had  become  one  of  the  most  lucrative 
branches  of  Portuguese  trade  in  Africa.  By  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  700  or  800  slaves  were  exported  annually  to 
Portugal  alone;  and  in  1517  Charles  V.  granted  a  patent  to  a 
l-'lemish  trader,  authorizing  him  to  import  4CXX)  slaves  annually 
to  the  West  Indies.  In  virtue  of  a  bull  from  the  Poi)e  a  market 
was  opened  in  Lisbon;  and  as  early  as  1537,  it  is  said.  10,000  to 
iJ.ooo  slaves  were  brought  to  tiiat  city,  and  transported  thence 
to  the  West  Indies.  This  "  carrying  trade,"  as  it  was  called,  rap- 
idly increased,  for  Portugal  was  in  time  joined  by  other  powers. 
Gold,  no  doubt,  was  obtained  from  the  Gold  Coast  and  from 
Manika,  but  the  exportation  of  natives  soon  became  the  staple 
trade  of  Africa. 

As  early  as  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  (15.S3) 
the  first  ICnglish  ships  were  fitted  out  for  Guinea  by  some  London 
merchants.  Captain  Thomas  Windham  made  a  voyage  "  for  the 
trade  of  Barbary."  "He  sailed."  says  Astley,  "to  Marokko;  this 
was  the  first  voyage  we  meet  with  to  the  western  coast  of  Africa." 
"  Here.  I)y  the  way."  Windham  tells  us  in  Hakluyt,  "it  is  to  be 
(ibserved  that  the  Portuguese  were  much  offended  with  this  our 
new  trade  into  Jjarbary ;  and  both  in  our  voyage  the  year  before, 
and  alM)  in  tliis.  gave  out  in  England,  tlirough  the  merchants,  that 
if  tliey  to(jk  us  in  tliese  parts  they  would  use  us  as  their  mortal 
ciicinics."  In  1532  Windham  made  a  second  voyage,  and  this  time 
succeeded  in  rcacliing  the  Gold  Coast;  his  great  quest,  as  was 
tl'ic  ca>e  with  all  other  adventurers  at  this  period,  was  gold.  He 
returned  with  150  pr^unds  of  the  precious  metal.  One  of  the  most 
iniere>ting  of  these  early  h'nghsh  trading  voyages  to  Guinea  was 
t'u'it  of  John  Lok  in  1554.  He  had  three  small  vessels  and  a  pin- 
nace (>r  tU'i.  and  tof,k  over  two  months  to  get  to  the  Gold  Coast, 
lie  and  his  companions  traded  along  the  coast  near  Cape  Three 
points  and  I-!iinina.  i)artering  cloth  for  Guinea  pepper,  elephant 
tu-k-..  and  g^Id.  Lok  broi-.g'it  home  with  him  400  pounds  of  gold, 
36  cv.t:^.  (  f  Guinea  ]ie])]>er.  and  about  250  tusks  of  ivory,  some  of 
them  weighing  90  pcHind-  each. 


THE     BEGINNING     OF     RIVALRY  29 

1555-1585 

In  the  following  year  William  Towrson  made  a  similar  trading 
voyage  to  the  Gold  Coast,  stopping  every  few  miles  to  trade  with 
the  natives,  who  evidently  had  learned  to  drive  hard  bargains.  The 
favorite  articles  of  exchange  were  brass  vases,  or  bowls,  besides 
beads,  cork,  and  other  things ;  for  these  Towrson  obtained  a  good 
supply  of  pepper,  ivory,  and  gold.  On  several  occasions  the  Por- 
tuguese fired  upon  the  boats,  but  did  no  harm.  He  went  out  again 
in  the  following  year,  and  when  near  the  Guinea  Coast  fell  in  with 
a  small  fleet  of  French  traders,  who  joined  themselves  to  him, 
so  that  they  might  combine  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  Portuguese 
ships  that  w-ere  cruising  about  the  coast  to  drive  off  intruders. 
French  vessels  were  also  met  with  by  other  English  traders,  which 
shows  that  at  this  early  date  France  had  her  eye  on  West  Africa. 
Indeed,  some  French  writers  tell  us  that  she  had  never  entirely 
ceased  her  connection  with  Africa  since  the  old  days  of  the  Dieppe 
adventurers  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  that  one  of  the  old  forts 
was  still  occupied  on  the  River  Senegal;  but  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  that  such  was  the  case.  Towrson  did  good  business  again 
on  this  voyage,  though  he  was  attacked  by  the  Portuguese  and 
deserted  by  the  French.  In  the  tliird  voyage  in  1558  he  again 
met  with  several  French  vessels,  but  treated  them  as  rivals,  and 
put  them  to  flight.  Thus,  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
a  busy  traffic  was  carried  on  by  various  nationalities  with  West 
Africa,  though  the  Portuguese  lorded  it  over  all  the  coast.  Old 
Richard  Eden  speaks  of  the  "  arbitrary  monopoly  of  the  Portuguese 
on  this  coast,  of  such  who,  on  account  of  conquering  forty  or  fifty 
miles  here  and  there,  certain  fortresses  or  block-houses  among 
naked  people,  think  themselves  worthy  to  be  lords  of  half  the  world, 
and  angry  that  others  sliould  enjoy  the  commodities  which  they 
themselves  cannot  wholly  possess." 

These  English  private  ventures  to  the  coast  of  Guinea  went 
on  during  the  reigns  of  ]\Iary  and  Elizabeth.  Sir  John  Hawkins 
has  the  credit  (or  discredit)  of  having  been  tlie  first  Englishman 
to  engage  in  the  slave-trade;  in  1562  he  fitted  out  three  ships, 
sailed  to  Guinea,  obtained  300  negroes,  conveyed  them  to  His- 
paniola,  sold  them,  and  returned  to  England  with  the  proceeds. 
Commercial  and  political  relations  were  also  being  established 
between  England  and  Jjarbary,  and  in  1585  Queen  Elizabeth 
granted  a  patent  or  charter  to  the  h^arl  of  Warwick,  tlie  Earl  of 
Leicester,  and  otliers,  lor  exclusive  trading  willi  Alorocco  for  twcl\c 


30  A  I'  RICA 

1560-1681 

vears.  Rut  the  first  real  I'lii^'-lish  chartered  African  Comi)anv  was 
that  for  whicli  I'.Ii/ahcth  j^ramocl  a  patent  in  15S8.  Three  v(n-af::e.s 
were  maile  under  this  company  (1589.  1590.  and  1591).  It  was 
found  that  the  Portuj^uese  had  been  expelled  from  th.e  Sene.c^al  by 
the  natives,  thoui^h  thcv  still  had  stations  on  the  Tiamhia.  while  they 
did  their  best,  witli  small  success,  to  ruin  the  l'!n,y:lish  expeditions. 
It  was  also  fiMHid  that  the  French  had  l)een  trading;;  to  the  Senegal 
and  the  (I.-imhia  since  15^0. 

The  Dutch  had  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  Sjjain  in  1581,  and 
thou.qh  thev  Iiad  yet  a  stru.q'qle  before  them  ere  they  established 
their  freedi'm  (*n  a  firm  footing,  they  too  began  io  look  abroad  for 
new  licUls  .^f  enterprise.  As  Si)ain  was  now  virtually  the  possessor 
of  all  t'le  .'ic(piisitions  of  Portugal.  Holland  ciMisidered  the  l\)rtu- 
guese  African  settlements  as  legitimate  spoil.  The  fust  J)utch 
trading  \i'yage  to  Ciuinea  seems  to  have  been  made  about  the  year 
1595.  Holland  ra])idly  gained  supremacy  all  along  the  cohst,  and 
swept  from  these  seas  not  only  the  shijxs  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
but  al>'>  iliose  of  l-'rancc  and  I'aigland.  By  the  time  the  Dutch 
West  India  ("onipany  was  founded  in  1621,  Holland  had  obtained 
a  coninian<ling  footing  in  West  Africa.  Goree  had  been  i)urchased 
frum  tlie  king  of  that  country,  and  various  other  ])oints  on  the 
coast  had  been  occupied  by  the  Dutch.  The  Gold  Coast  was  studded 
with  forts,  for  in  those  times  it  was  considered  absolutely  essential 
that.  whtnc\er  a  coast  was  taken  possession  of,  forts  siiould  be 
built  to  keep  off  intruders.  Tlie  charter  of  the  Dutch  Company 
ga\c  it  th.e  monopoly  of  trade  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the 
Cajje  of  Good  Hope.  While  gold  and  ivory  and  pepper  were  re- 
garded as  impr, riant  articles  of  trade,  the  name  of  the  company  is 
inchcati'in  enough  of  its  great  purpose — tlie  supply  of  the  Dutch 
ancl  otl-er  colonics  of  the  West  Indies  with  negro  slaves.  By  the 
beginning  of  tl.c  seventeenth  centiny  slaves  hafl  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  sta]ilc  commodity  of  tlie  African  scmI  ;  and  the  great 
rivalr}-  tl.ai  ^^rcw  i;p  between  the  various  Iuiro|)can  j)owers  for 
coL)iiii.>  in  \\  r-:  Africa  was  mainlv  due  to  the  desire  to  have  the 
nionii])'uy  ■  f  t'ne  >la\c-markct.  r)riti-h  traders  were  mrd:ing  con- 
tnuial  C'^nplaints  to  Parliament  of  the  difficidty,  owing  mainly  to 
the  mi.no|,..!y  nf  tjic  Dutch.  (>\  getting  a  supply  of  negroes  "of  the 
bc>t  srtrt"  f'lr  tlu-  ^ugar  colonics  in  the  West  Indies. 

'lilt  fn-;  Pr::ir-]i  Afi-ican  C-.nMi.nu-  <cems  t^  ha\e  accf)mplished 
little:   'nid  t'c  c  'Uipanies  cliartereij  in  i6i(S  by  James  P.  and  in  1631 


THE     BEGINNING     OF     RIVALRY  31 

1631-1681 

by  Charles  I.,  were  not  much  better.  The  first  company,  though 
its  special  object  was  to  trade  with  the  Gambia,  does  not  seem  to 
have  obtained  any  permanent  footing  there.  A  company  chartered 
in  1618  made  strenuous  efforts  to  push  its  way  up  the  Gambia  in 
the  hope  of  reaching  Timbuktu,  which  was  then  regarded  as  the 
great  trade  emporium  of  tlie  interior.  Both  the  Senegal  and  the 
Gambia  were  at  the  time  conjectured  to  have  a  connection  with 
the  Niger,  on  which  Timbuktu  was  known  to  be  situated.  It  was 
intended  to  build  a  series  of  forts  on  the  river,  but  it  soon  became 
evident  that  the  gold  which  it  was  hoped  would  be  found  in  abun- 
dance was  practically  non-existent ;  and  so  the  English  quest  for 
Timbuktu  was  abandoned.  At  the  time  of  the  Restoration  the  only 
forts  possessed  by  Englishmen  were  on  the  Gambia,  and  at  Cor- 
mantine,  near  Anamabo,  on  ihe  Gold  Coast. 

The  company  chartered  by  Charles  II.  in  1662  was  more  suc- 
cessful, and  a  fort  was  built  on  James  Island  in  the  Gambia.  This 
company  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  trying  to  checkmate  the 
Dutch,  who  were  constantly  harassing  English  traders,  seizing 
their  ships,  and  destroying  tlie  stations  they  attempted  to  establish. 
The  conduct  of  the  Dutch  became  so  intolerable  that  Charles  II. 
declared  war  against  them  in  1665.  and  the  English  captured  forts 
at  Seconda,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  and  other  places,  and  built  new 
ones  for  themselves.  But  th.e  British  Company  continued  to  be 
unfortunate,  and  in  1672  its  rights  and  properties  were  made  over 
to  a  new  Royal  African  Company,  to  which  was  given  the  mo- 
nopoly of  trade  for  a  thousand  years  from  the  coast  of  Barbary  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Forts  and  factories  were  built  at  various 
points  along  this  stretch.  By  this  time  Denmark  also  had  joined 
in  the  occupation  of  Africa,  and  had  a  fort  near  Cape  Coast  Castle, 
shortly  after  taken  over  by  England,  and  renamed  Fort  Royal; 
other  Danish  forts  were  built  here  and  there  along  the  coast. 

Still  another  European  power  had  joined  in  this  scramble 
which  may  be  said  to  ha\'e  reached  its  height  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  Germany's  recent  enormous  annexations 
in  Africa  are  not  her  first  efl'orts  to  ol)tain  a  share  in  the  partition 
of  the  continent.  Under  tlie  au.'^piccs  of  tlie  Great  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  Frederick  A\'illiam  I.,  trading  connections  were 
formed  with  the  west  coa^t  (if  .\frica,  and  the  I'randcnburg  African 
Company  was  fcninded  in  ir.Si.  i-^-cdericl:  \\'as  llic  Bismarck  of  liis 
day,  and  he  had  ambili(-ns  not  (miIv  in  the  (Hrection  of  Africa,  Ijut 


32  A  V  11 1  C  A 

1681 -1698 

India  as  well:  and.  like  Bismarck,  one  great  object  which  he  had 
ill  view  was  tlie  iiniirovcnicnt  of  the  navy.  Gross-Friedrichsburg 
was  buih  in  i(»Sv  near  L':\\)c  Three  Points,  and  treaties  were  made 
with  the  chiefs  of  the  coast  and  the  interior.  Expeditions  for  trade 
and  cxplttrati(Mi  wore  sent  inland,  and  for  some  years  there  was 
busy  trathc  hotwcon  Trnssia  and  West  Africa  as  far  south  as  Angola. 
Xot  onlv  (Ml  the  (iold  Coast,  hut  in  Arguin  luiy.  on  the  south  of 
Cape  Hlanco.  these  r.randcnlnirgers  established  themselves  and 
carried  on  a  trade  with  the  interior.  But  events  at  home  were  too 
much  for  the  I\lector  and  his  son  and  successor,  and  about  1720 
Prussia  (lisaj)])carcd  from  the  African  arena,  not  to  reappear  till 
about  twenty  yc  irs  ago. 

It  must  be  said  tliat  the  French  were  from  the  first  more  per- 
severing and  determined  than  any  other  power  in  their  attempts 
to  push  their  way  into  tlie  interior.  A  settlement  (St.  Louis)  was 
formed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  by  a  com])any  which  had 
l)cen  chartered  in  T'Vance,  just  as  similar  companies  had  been  char- 
tered in  1-jigland  and  Holland,  the  great  object  of  all  being  the 
export  of  slaves  [0  America.  As  with  h'ngland,  so  with  France; 
the  first  companies  failed,  but  others  were  formed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, and  iM'ench  influence  spread  in  this  part  of  the  west  coast. 
Under  Brue  and  other  explorers  stations  were  established  far  up 
the  Senegal,  the  great  ol)ject  being  to  reach  Timbuktu,  as  the 
Fnglish  had  endeavored  to  do  by  way  of  the  Gambia.  Arguin  and 
Cioree  were  taken  from  the  Dutch,  and  many  difficulties  placed 
in  tb.e  way  of  English  operations.  It  may  fairly  be  said  that 
France  has  never  relaxed  her  efforts  to  secure  the  domination  of 
the  Scnegambian  region  and  th.e  countries  watered  by  the  Niger. 
The  oj)crat!ons  which  are  being  carried  on  now  on  the  Upper  Niger 
are  hut  the  latest  stag^cs  of  titose  so  successfully  begun  by  Sieur 
P.rue  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1695  the 
I'l-ench  toi  k  the  Gambia,  and  when  it  was  restored  to  England 
iM-cnch  inHucnce  was  in  tlie  ascendant,  and  has  remained  so  since. 
Indeed,  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  the  I'Tench  Senegal  Com- 
jfany  hara'-<cd  the  settlements  and  the  ships  of  all  other  nationalities; 
in  i^tSv'^'"^'.^  \\'t'  find  tlicni  confiscating  vessels  belonging  to  the 
Portuguese.  Dutch,  and  Brandenburgers.  and  they  persistently  ad- 
vanced claims  ag,iin-,t  the  Royal  African  Company  until  at  last 
a  war  broke  out  hctacen  tl;e  two  naticms. 

In  i(>(jH  t!:c  iiio::  .jjtjly  of  the  English  Company  was  abolished 


THE     BEGINNING     OF     RIVALRY  33 

1690 

for  fourteen  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  it  was  not  restored. 
In  consideration  of  the  expense  which  the  company  had  been  put 
to  in  erecting  and  maintaining  forts,  a  ten  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
duty  was  allowed  for  administrative  purposes.  It  seems  to  have 
been  quite  insufficient  to  cover  expenses;  and  that  too.  in  spite  of 
the  monopoly  which  they  obtained  by  the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  of 
the  importation  of  slaves  into  the  Spanish  West  Indies.  It  is  highly 
instructive  to  read  some  of  the  pamphlet  literature  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  seventeenth  and  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  centuries, 
and  learn  of  the  hot  controversies  which  then  raged  over  the  com- 
pany and  its  monopoly.  Here  is  an  extract  from  a  pamphlet,  pub- 
lished in  1690,  entitled  "A  Treatise  Discussing  the  Intrigues  and 
Arbitrary  Proceedings  of  the  Governing  Company,  by  William 
Wilkinson,  Mariner."  It  affords  an  idea  of  the  articles  which  con- 
stituted the  trade  of  West  Africa  at  this  period,  and  also  of  the 
bitter  feeling  which  prevailed  in  certain  quarters  against  the 
company : 

"  Let  us  now  look  toward  Africa,  and  take  a  view  of  the  riches 
of  that  place  which  is  undiscovered  to  the  merchant,  and  particu- 
larly, the  boundless  woods  of  Cam,  which  is  a  red  wood  fit  for 
dyeing,  the  prodigious  quantities  of  dry  hides  of  all  sorts,  of  wild 
and  tame  cattle,  useful  in  the  making  of  shoes,  boots,  trunks,  sad- 
dles, and  furniture,  etc. ;  the  inexhaustible  treasure  of  gold,  the 
vast  quantities  of  elephants'  teeth,  beeswax,  and  honey,  and  the 
inestimable  riches  of  gums,  ostriches'  feathers,  and  amber-grease, 
which  commodities  are  all  purchased  for  the  goods  of  the  growth 
and  manufacture  of  England,  and  are  brought  directly  home,  which 
is  a  double  advantage,  as  well  to  the  kingdom  as  to  the  royal  revenue. 

"  Or,  if  we  consider  the  trade  of  negro  servants,  which  proves 
so  advantageous  to  the  western  plantations  in  the  several  islands 
of  America,  as  well  as  that  continent  whose  chief  commerce  is 
sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  ginger,  cotton,  and  dyeing  stuffs,  which 
are  the  natural  product  of  the  New  World,  whose  penury  or  plenty 
lies  indispensably  upon  tlie  trade  of  negro  servants  from  Africa, 
which  the  Royal  company  manage  with  more  than  an  ordinarv 
slight  for  their  own  advantage,  taking  care  that  the  planters  shall 
never  be  furnished  with  negrces  sufficient  to  follow  their  business 
with  satisfaction,  and  imposing  wliat  prices  they  please,  and  do 
trust  but  for  six  niunths;  for  which  they  exact  such  an  interest, 
that  they,  in  a  manner,  sweep  away  the  i)rofit  of  their  labors,  so 


34  A  V  RICA 

1690-1769 

that  although  he  the  planter's  indiisti^  never  so  great,  yet  he  shall 
n(^t  he  ahle  to  cfTcct  his  designs,  hecause  his  hands  are  thus  hound 
bv  the  conipanv :  vet  I  am  sure  that  if  the  planters  were  furnished 
with  neqrcH^s  ivinn  Africa,  answerahle  to  their  industry,  that  four 
times  the  sugar,  indigo,  cotton,  etc.,  would  be  imported  every  year; 
then  let  cvcrv  rational  man  judge,  if  this  would  not  be  infinitely 
more  ad\  antagcous  to  the  kingdom  in  general. 

"  And  to  such  a  height  is  the  feuds  of  this  company  grown, 
that  tlicv  presume  not  only  to  oppress  the  subjects  abroad,  but 
likewise  to  lord  it  (U'er  them  here  in  England,  by  imposing  forty 
]icr  com.  upon  such  as  witli  their  license  trade  to  Africa,  as  Samuel 
Slierring.  and  others,  now  in  London,  can  witness,  who  ])aid  them 
tlie  vahic  aforesaid,  for  a  permission  to  trade  at  Angola,  a  place 
in  Africa,  and  remote  from  any  of  their  castles  and  factories,  and 
in  the  Piirtugucscs  territories,  which  is  both  hurtful  to  traffic,  and 
prejudicial  to  the  king's  prerogative  and  revenue,  it  being  a  point 
of  religion  to  pay  tribute  to  Cesar;  but  I  never  heard  of  any  law. 
or  gospel,  to  oblige  men  to  pay  tribute  to  the  African  Company." 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  Dutch  had  established  themselves 
at  the  Cape  in  1652,  their  main  if  not  sole  object  being  to  secure  a 
halfway  house  between  Europe  and  India.  The  Dutch  (lovern- 
mcnt  later  encouraged  the  settlement  of  Dutch  emigrants,  but  the 
white  poi)ulation  increased  but  slowlv.  and  the  tyrannical  restric- 
tions of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  did  not  encourage  colon- 
ization. Thus  for  many  years  effective  occupation  was  confined  to 
Cape  Town  and  a  few  miles  around  it. 

It  may  also  be  noted  that  Eiigland  held  Tangier,  in  Morocco, 
from  i66j  to  1684.  Portugal,  after  many  struggles,  had  obtained 
]ios-ession  of  tliis  important  position  in  1471.  When,  in  iG()2. 
Catharine  of  IJragan/a  was  married  to  Charles  II.  of  haigland, 
Tangier  firmed  ]);irl  of  her  dowry.  But  I'.ngland  found  the  posi- 
tion so  troubles,  ine  and  expensive  that  she  abandoned  it  in  16(84, 
aficr  Iiaviiig  destroyed  the  fortillcations.  rortugal  had  a  footing 
in  M'>;  'cco  till  ]yCH),  when  s!ie  evacuated  Mazagan,  while  S})ain 
still  1:<jI(1s  li'.e  (;ld  f  jrtress  (jf  Ceuta. 


Chapter   IV 

STAGNATION    AND    SLAVERY.     1700-1815 

THUS,  by  the  beginning-  of  the  eighteenth  century,  we  find 
in  the  African  field  all  the  chief  European  factors  which 
have  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  recent  years  in  the 
partition  of  the  continent,  in  addition  to  that  Moslem  or  so-called 
Arab  element  which  was  then  dominant  over  half  of  Africa.  Far 
stronger  then  than  now  was  the  hold  which  Turkey  had  over  the 
northern  regions;  her  power  extended  from  Egypt  (conquered  in 
1 5 17)  to  Algeria;  while  the  influence  of  Morocco  was  felt  as  far 
as  Timbuktu  and  Guinea. 

During  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  compara- 
tively little  change  in  the  relative  positions  of  the  European  powers. 
Holland  gave  a  king  to  England  in  1688,  but  that  had  little  in- 
fluence in  promoting  friendly  relations  between  the  two  sets  of 
colonies  in  West  Africa.  Portugal  continued  to  reign  in  the  region 
south  of  the  Congo,  and,  with  varied  fortunes,  subject  constantly 
to  the  attacks  of  the  natives,  occupied  a  few  fortified  places  between 
Delagoa  Bay  and  Mozambique.  The  Dutch  held  their  own  at  the 
Cape,  and  French  and  Dutch  and  English  struggled  for  supremacy 
on  the  west  coast,  which,  during  the  eighteenth  century,  continued 
to  be  the  chief  field  of  contention  among  tlie  European  po\^'ers  in 
Africa.  Let  us  see  what  was  the  position  in  West  Africa  in  the 
first  half  of  the  century. 

Between  Cape  Blanco  and  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  there  were  in 
all  forty-three  forts  f)r  stations.  Tl;e  first  European  settlement  on 
the  mainland  was  at  Arguin,  on  the  Gum  Coast,  as  it  was  called, 
in  about  20^  north  latitude.  This  had  originally  belonged  to  Por- 
tugal, then  to  the  Dutch,  tlicn  to  llie  hrench.  then  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  wlio  ofi'ercd  it  to  I'jigland  iov  $500,000,  but  from  whom 
it  was  ultimatclv  bought  by  the  Dutch  for  $150,000.  It  was,  how- 
ever, taken  by  tlic  b'rench  in  1721.  France  may  be  said  to  have 
been  supreme  from  here  to  the  Gambia,  having  a  fort  on  the  Sene- 

35 


36  A  F  RICA 

1721-1780 

g^nl,  and  settlements  and  plantations  for  a  long  distance  up  the 
river. 

England's  west  coast  possessions  then  as  now  began  at  the 
Gambia,  where  the  Royal  African  Company  had  a  good  fort  on 
James  Island,  witli  sundry  factories  higher  up  on  each  side  of  the 
river.  I'arthcr  round,  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  we  find  English  forts 
at  nixcove.  Socotidce,  Commenda.  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Fort  Royal, 
Ouecn  Anne's  Point  (these  three  close  together),  Annishan,  Ana- 
mabo.  Agga.  Tantum(|uerry.  Winneba,  Siiidaoe,  Accra,  Allampo, 
(Juctta.  Whyda.  Jacquin,  and  Cabinda.  All  were  within  a  few 
miles  of  each  oilier,  except  the  last,  which  was  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo.  Some  of  them  had  been  abandoned  by  1740,  though 
they  may  have  been  reoccupied,  and  in  nearly  every  case  they  were 
tlanked  by  Dutch  forts.  Cabinda  had  been  taken,  plundered,  and 
destroyed  by  the  Portuguese  in  1723. 

The  only  forts  possessed  by  the  Portuguese  on  all  this  coast, 
which  they  had  discovered,  and  which  gave  a  title  to  their  king. 
were  at  Cuchoo  and  Bissao,  where  they  have  a  patch  at  the  present 
dav.  Then  as  now  they  held  possession  of  St.  Paul  dc  Loanda, 
where  we  are  told  they  bad  several  forts  and  a  large  city,  and 
where  they  carried  on  "  a  very  great  and  advantageous  inland  trade 
for  some  hundreds  of  miles."  Their  great  stronghold  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  St.  George  da  Mina,  had  long  ago  been  taken  and  occupied 
by  the  Dutch,  who  possessed  sixteen  out  of  the  forty-three  forts 
on  the  coast. 

Altliough  in  1740  Denmark  had  only  one  fort  on  the  coast, 
at  Accra,  slie  had  later  on  three  others,  at  Fingo,  Adda,  and  Quetta; 
all  of  whicli  she  sold  to  England  in  1850  for  $50,000. 

Cape  Coast  Castle  and  some  of  the  other  forts,  13utch  and  Eng- 
lish, were  at  the  time  formidable  buildings;  most  of  them  had 
"negro  houses."  in  which  the  natives  were  stored  in  readiness  to 
be  s!ii])])cd  across  the  .Atlantic  to  tlie  plantations.  The  maintenance 
of  these  forts  and  the  establishments  connected  therewith  was  a 
perpetual  source  of  expense,  and,  according  to  contemporary  state- 
ments, the  liritisli  Com])any  was  in  a  continual  state  of  embarrass- 
ment, and  in  need  of  subsidies  from  the  government.  There  was 
nnich  controver-y  during  the  first  half  of  the  century  as  to  what 
should  he  done  witli  tiie  African  Com])any :  whether  its  monopoly 
should  be  maintrn'ned.  or  wlicther  it  should  be  abolished,  and  the 
African  trade  thrown  (j[cn  to  all  comers,     b'inally,  the  old  company 


STAGNATION     AND     SLAVERY  37 

1750-1788 

was  succeeded  in  1750  by  the  African  Company  of  Merchants,  con- 
stituted by  Act  of  Parliament,  with  liberty  to  trade  and  to  form 
establishments  on  the  west  coast  between  20°  north  and  20°  south 
latitude. 

Let  us  recall  the  fact  that  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first 
fifteen  years  of  the  nineteenth  constituted  a  period  of  almost  chronic 
war  in  Europe.  There  were  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
(1700),  the  English  rebellions,  the  Quadruple  Alliance  against 
Spain  (1718),  the  Polish  troubles,  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Suc- 
cession ( 1 741-1748),  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1758),  and  the  almost 
continuous  war  between  France  and  England  ending  in  Waterloo, 
and  during  which  England  annexed  Canada,  established  her 
supremacy  in  India,  and  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  other  parts  of 
the  world,  while  she  lost,  in  America,  the  greatest  of  all  her  colo- 
nies. During  this  period,  with  the  exception  of  Egypt  and  the  Cape, 
Africa  did  not  receive  a  large  share  of  attention,  though  the  forts 
on  the  west  coast  were  continually  changing  hands.  The  Dutch  lost 
the  supreme  place  they  occupied  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  French  continued  to  advance  steadily  in  the  Senegal 
region.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  British  traders  began  to 
establish  themselves  on  the  Oil  Rivers,  though  at  that  time  oil  was 
of  little  or  no  account.  In  1787  England  resumed  her  old  connec- 
tion with  Sierra  Leone,  where  a  private  company  obtained  land  on 
which  to  establish  a  settlement  for  freed  slaves ;  great  things  were 
expected  to  come  of  this.  The  first  negroes  sent  out  were  four  hun- 
dred gathered  from  the  streets  of  London,  together  with  sixty 
whites,  mostly  women  of  bad  character.  A  considerable  number 
of  Europeans,  chiefly  English  and  Dutch,  were  also  sent  out  to 
Sierra  Leone  apparently  under  the  belief  that  it  was  quite  possible 
for  Europeans  to  colonize  West  Africa.  It  need  hardly  be  said 
that  the  sufferings  were  great  and  the  deaths  appalling.  A  similar 
attempt  at  the  same  time  on  the  part  of  a  number  of  Swedes  ended 
in  disaster. 

At  the  Cape,  meanwhile,  French  Protestants  found  a  refuge, 
and  the  Dutch  burghers,  dissatisfied  with  the  rule  of  the  company, 
trekked  inland  to  the  Karroo  to  carry  on  their  farming  free  from 
molestation.  But  the  company's  rule  followed  tlicm.  and  magis- 
tracies were  establislied  at  .Swcllendam  in  1745,  and  at  Graaf  Reinet 
in  1784.     In  1788  the  boundary  of  the  colony  was  extended  to  the 


88  A  I''  RICA 

1795-1800 

Great  Fisli  River.  Tn  1705  the  Cape  was  captured  by  the  English, 
ami  witli  the  exception  of  the  three  years  fnMii  1803  to  1806,  has 
reiiiaiiieil  l-!nj^hsli  ever  since.  ,\t  the  date  of  its  capture  the  whole 
white  j)opulation  of  Sontii  Africa  was  probahly  under  10.000. 
Purini,'  the  Hutch  period.  n(M withstanding-  the  hard  rule  of  the 
I'lasi  India  Company,  soniethini;'  had  been  done  to  develop  the 
colony:  th.e  \  ino  was  introduced  at  an  early  date,  and  has  been 
t-uhi\ated  ever  since:  cattle  and  sheep  reariuf;;'  was  encouraj^ed,  ex- 
jierinicnts  were  made  with  various  cultures,  and  wheat  was  suc- 
cessfully thrown  and  even  exported.  Occasional  expeditions  were 
sent  into  the  interior. 

It  is  i^enerally  believed  that  the  Orange  River  was  not  crossed 
before  iSoo.  By  tliis  time  cattle-runs  had  been  extended  to 
Olif.inl's  I\i\er,  and  the  Copper  Mountains  of  little  Xamarpirdauil 
were  visited  l)v  Kuropeans  as  far  back  as  1685.  Ai^ain.  in  1791- 
17OJ.  an<'thcr  expedition  crossed  the  Oranj^e  River,  this  time 
in  ih.e  belief  that  i^^old  was  to  be  found  in  the  country  beyond:  but 
nolliinj;'  came  of  it  exce])t  some  information  concern inj.;'  the  Da- 
maras.  A  year  later  an  expedition  by  sea  took  ])ossession  of  Pos- 
session Island,  An^^ra  I'equena,  Walfish  Bay,  and  other  places,  in 
the  name  of  the  company — a  fact  of  some  interest  in  connection 
with  recent  events.  Still,  when  the  colony  was  taken  over  by  Eni(- 
laml.  it  can  hardly  be  i^:\\(\  that  effective  possession  extended  more 
lli.in  200  miles  from  the  south  coast,  while  the  total  annual 
revenue  was  only  $150,000 — a  sum  quite  insufficient  to  cover  the 
cxpeiidiiure. 

Let  us  f.jr  a  moment  turn  to  the  slave-trade.  There  seems 
little  (L'ubt  that  the  African  Companv,  which  was  dissolved  in  1750, 
was  ruined  by  the  famous  "  Assiento  "  contract  with  Spain  of  1713; 
the  C'jn'iiiions  on  which  the  com])anv  was  ])ermitted  to  ex})ort 
>^lave5  from  Africa  to  the  Sijanish- American  colonies  were  such 
that  one  wunders  how  it  ever  consented  to  this  treaty.  Still  the 
trade  wem  <.n.  .Macpherson.  in  his  "  Ilistorv  of  Commerce,"  cal- 
culatca  iliai  in  174.S  ijie  number  of  Africans  shipi)ed  to  America 
and  tile  W'e-i  l:;dies  l)y  all  nations  anunnited  to  97,000;  the  num- 
Ix-'r  (jf  Afri^•a^^  i;i  America  at  that  date  was  probably  considerably 
o\er  a  iiiillion.  \[  w-uld  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  number  of 
African.^  (leix^rted  fr^iiii  tlie  continent  from  the  time  of  the  Ih'st 
Iviirojjean  c  nnectii  iii  wiiii  ii  ;  hnt  durint^  the  eighteenth  century 
alone  it  wa.-^  jjrubaljly  nut  Ic-^a  than  six  milli<jns.     Aloreo\cr,  the  old 


STAGNATION     AND     SLAVERY  39 

1584-1775 

trade  from  Central  Africa  to  the  Mediterranean,  Egypt,  and  Asia, 
which  had  been  carried  on  from  time  immemorial,  was  still  con- 
tinued. Take  it  all  in  all,  the  profit  from  the  slave-trade  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  was  equal  to  that  arising 
from  gold,  ivory,  gum,  and  all  other  products  combined. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  power  of  the  Portuguese  in  East 
Africa  rapidly  declined,  and  that  of  the  Arabs,  under  new  auspices, 
rose  on  its  ruins.  As  early  as  1584  there  had  been  an  insurrection 
all  along  the  coast  against  the  Portuguese,  who  were  at  this  time 
under  the  domination  of  Spain ;  it  was  promoted  by  Ali  Bey,  who 
suddenly  appeared  in  these  waters  and  claimed  the  sovereignty 
for  the  Turkish  sultan.  Many  of  the  towns  on  the  coast  fell  into 
his  hands.  The  rebellion,  however,  was  of  brief  duration;  Ali 
Bey  was  captured,  and  most  of  the  cities  retaken.  But  the  Portu- 
guese dominion  in  Africa  was  doomed.  Portugal,  to  quote  Krapf, 
"  ruled  the  East  Africans  with  a  rod  of  iron,  and  her  pride  and 
cruelty  had  their  reward  in  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  natives.  In 
East  Africa  the  Portuguese  have  left  nothing  behind  them  but 
ruined  fortresses,  palaces,  and  ecclesiastical  buildings.  Nowhere 
is  there  to  be  seen  a  single  trace  of  any  real  improvement  effected 
by  them."  Sef  ben  Sultan,  the  Imaum  of  Oman,  at  the  request 
of  the  people  of  Mombasa,  sent  a  fleet  to  East  Africa  and  captured 
Mombasa,  Zanzibar,  and  Kilwa,  and  laid  siege  to  Mozambique  in 
1698.  Although  the  Portuguese  reoccupied  the  coast  fort  of 
IMombasa,  which  they  held  up  to  1730,  their  sovereignty  between 
Cape  Guardafui  and  Cape  Delgado  came  practically  to  an  end  at 
this  time.  After  this  the  Imaum  of  Muscat  held  a  nominal  sov- 
ereignty over  the  east  coast  of  Africa ;  Mombasa  was  the  center 
of  the  government,  the  rulersliip  becoming  to  some  extent  heredi- 
tary. In  the  end,  as  will  be  seen,  this  led  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
Imaums  of  Oman  over  the  east  coast  from  Magdoshu  to  Cape 
Delgado,  and  to  the  establishment  of  Zanzibar  as  an  independent 
state  in  1861. 

Thus  by  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  pdvver  of 
Portugal  in  East  Africa  was  at  the  lowest  possible  ebb;  she  had 
only  a  precarious  footing  at  one  of  the  ports  on  tlie  coast;  and  her 
main  trade  was  the  export  of  slaves.  Slie  had  even  abandoned 
Delagoa  Bay,  and  the  Dutch  from  tlie  Cape  had  built  a  fort  and  a 
factory  there. 

Eifty  years  later  it  is  curious  to  find  tliat  even  Austria  dreamed 


K)  A  F  RICA 

1775-1815 

of  acquiring  African  possessions.  In  the  hope  of  securing  the  trade 
of  tlic  cast  to  tlic  Austrian  dotninions  in  Flanders,  Tuscany,  ami 
the  Adriatic.  Maria  Theresa  granted  a  cliarter  in  1775  to  WiUiam 
r>ohs.  an  h'nglisliman  who  liad  heen  in  the  service  of  the  British 
Fast  India  Company.  HoUs  gathered  together  a  somcwliat  dis- 
reputable hand  of  eniigraiUs  from  various  Mediterranean  countries 
and  sailed  from  Leghorn  in  1776.  He  proceeded  to  Delagoa  Bay, 
and  made  terms  with  the  chiefs  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  who  de- 
clared they  were  independent  of  the  Portuguese  and  of  every  other 
power.  The  Austrian  flag  was  raised,  forts  were  built,  various 
buildings  erected,  and  a  considerable  trade  with  India  began.  Bolts, 
who  seems  to  have  had  some  practical  sense,  sent  a  Mohammedan 
priest  from  India  to  convert  the  natives,  to  whom  he  thought 
Islamism  was  better  adapted  than  Christianity.  The  settlement, 
however,  lasted  only  three  years.  The  Europeans  died  off  rap- 
idly. an<l  the  Portuguese,  awaking  to  what  they  regarded  as  their 
rights,  addressed  representations  and  protests  to  the  Austrian  Gov- 
ernment, and  so  ended  the  only  attempt  on  the  part  of  Austria  to 
share  in  the  partition  of  Africa. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  century  public  opinion  in  England  was 
rapidly  taking  a  strong  trend  against  the  slave-trade.  From  the  first 
here  and  there  a  voice  had  been  lifted  up  against  tliis  tratVic.  It 
was  in  1772  that  Granville  Sharp  succeeded  in  getting  the  famous 
judicial  decision,  that  as  soon  as  any  slave  set  his  foot  upc^n  English 
territory  he  was  free,  and  could  not  be  taken  back  to  1)e  a  slave. 
In  1787  Clarkson.  W'ilberforce,  and  others  f(^rmcd  themselves  into 
an  association  to  secure  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1788  a 
bill  was  passed  in  the  British  Parliament  to  regulate  it.  At  this  time 
the  annual  export  of  slaves  from  Africa  amounted  to  200.000.  Half 
of  them  were  exported  from  the  west  coast  to  America  and  the  West 
Indies:  the  other  half  partly  from  the  east  coast  to  Persia  and  the 
East  Indies,  and  partly  from  the  interior  to  Egypt  and  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean states.  I)cnm;irk  had  the  honor  to  be  the  first  luiropcan  state 
to  {>rnhibit  its  subjects  from  engaging  in  the  slave-trade.  This  was 
in  17^2.  In  1807  the  >lave-tra(le  was  declared  illegal  for  all  British 
subject.-.  In  tlic  same  year  tlie  United  States  ])assed  a  law  for- 
bidding the  imporiation  of  slaves  int(j  the  L'nion.  Ik'twcen  1807  and 
181  5  niM>t  of  i!ie  oilier  great  powers  .assumed  the  same  j)osition  as 
England,  and  by  JS15  tlie  slave-ti-adc  was  chieHv  carried  on  under 
the  flags  of  Spain  and  Portugal.     In  that  year,  at  the  Congress  of 


STAGNATION     AND     SLAVERY  41 

1815 

Vienna,  a  declaration  was  signed  by  the  powers  that  the  trade 
was  repugnant  to  humanity,  and  that  its  aboHtion  was  highly  de- 
sirable. 

During  the  long  Napoleonic  wars  the  possessions  of  England, 
France,  and  Holland  on  the  west  coast  frequently  changed  hands; 
but  except  in  the  case  of  Egypt,  the  struggle  for  colonial  possessions 
did  not  greatly  affect  Africa.  Let  us  now  see  how  the  partition  of 
the  continent  stood  in  the  memorable  year  1815. 


Chapter  V 

THE  POSITION  IN   1815 

WIIKX  Xapoleon  was  finally  crushed  in  1815  Great  Brit- 
ain remained  supreme  at  home  and  abroad.  With  the 
exccjjtion  of  some  patches  in  India,  the  deadly  colony 
of  Cayenne  in  South  America,  a  few  West  India  Islands,  and  the 
islets  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  off  Newfoundland,  the  only  for- 
cip^i  possessions  remaining  to  I'^rance  wh.en  the  stru,c;"gle  was  ended 
were  the  islands  of  Reunion  and  Sainte  Marie  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Madagascar,  and  the  colony  of  Senegal  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  F,ngland  remained  mistress  of  nearly  all  the  lands  of  the 
globe  most  available  for  European  settlement — Canada,  Australia, 
and  the  Cape.  She  was  supreme  in  India,  her  influence  was  para- 
mount in  Egypt,  she  retained  some  of  the  best  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  she  possessed  patches  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  while 
the  British  flag  was  planted  on  the  islands  of  every  ocean.  It  is 
worth  while  to  recall  the  position  of  the  various  European  powers 
on  the  African  continent  when,  in  181 5,  the  world  was  left  to  begin 
a  long  period  of  peaceful  expansion. 

Turkey  was  the  only  European  power  which  had  a  footing  in 
North  Africa;  she  was  nominally  the  suzerain  of  Egypt,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli,  but  her  power  was  even  then  on  the  wane.  Algeria 
with  her  corsairs  was  still  the  terror  of  the  Mediterranean  traders; 
Morocco  was  then,  as  she  is  now,  independent  but  tottering.  To 
t!ie  Saharan  "  Hinterland  "  of  these  Mediterranean  states  no  power 
laid  claim.  The  Central  Sudan  was  powerful  and  independent, 
occujjied.  or  at  least  ruled,  by  semi-civilized  Moliammedan  fanatics. 
Indeed,  the  wliole  of  the  Niger  region  was  divided  up  into  some- 
what small  states  among  which  Mohammedanism  was  rapidly 
spreading.  Mungo  Park,  who  in  1796  had  been  the  first  European 
t'j  reach  the  banks  of  the  Niger  and  who  returned  for  a  new 
expedition  in  1805.  had  perished  on  the  river  he  longed  to 
exjjldre.  while  Rene  Caillie  had  not  yet  visited  Timbuktu.  France 
was  left  in  possession  of  the  west  coast  from  Cape  Blanco  to  the 

42 


THE     POSITION     IN     1815 


43 


1807 

mouth  of  the  Gambia,  but,  except  for  a  short  distance  along  the 
Senegal,  her  power  extended  but  a  little  way  inland.  Portugal 
had  then,  as  she  has  now,  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and  a  patch  on 
the  coast  to  the  south  of  the  Casamansa.  England  retained  her 
old  station  on  the  Gambia;    her  Sierra  Leone  possession  was  but 


^^^^i^)""^ 


^iHOWING  OCCUPATION  AND 
PATTlfli.  EX^LORAHON  Cf  rVilN  RTVEPS 


a  patch :  her  stations  on  the  Gold  Coast  were  suffering  from  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  i(So7.  wliile  the  colony  of  Lagos  was 
not  founded  till  long  after.  Denmark  and  Holland  and  Portugal 
had  still  several  forts  along  the  coast,  though  the  P*randcnburg  settle- 
ment had  long  ago  l:)cen  abandoned,  l^iberia  was  not  f (funded  until 
five  years  after  the  date  with  which  we  are  concerned.  The  course 
of  the  Niger  was  unknown;  trading  stations  or  factories,  mainly 
British,  were  dotted  here  and  there  on  the  Oil  Rivers,  the  Cam- 


44  AFRICA 

1806-1815 

cnxnis.  and  the  Conj^o  estuary,  while  the  whole  coast  was  the  haunt 
oi  slavers  of  every  naliDualiiy.  Spain  had  Fernantlo  Po,  and  Por- 
tug^al  one  of  the  smaller  islands  to  the  south,  but  the  whole  coast 
down  to  the  C"onii»)  was  virtually  no-man's-land,  ready  to  be  an- 
nexeil  bv  anv  nation  in  search  of  colonies.  Portug^al,  indeed, 
claimeil  that  her  i;real  West  African  possessions  began  at  5^^  south, 
to  the  niMth  of  the  L\)ngo.  and  this  claim  was  for  a  moment  con- 
ceded by  I'Jigland  in  18S4,  though  Portuguese  writers  admitted 
tiiere  had  never  been  effectual  occupation. 

At  tlie  niouih  of  the  Congo  itself  there  were  a  few  stations — 
Portuguese.  iMcnch.  English,  Dutch;  but  tliese  were  mainly  for 
slave-trading  puri)oscs.  though  the  slave-trade  was  declared  illegal 
in  iSe)7.  .'Hid  was  made  piracy  in  181 7.  From  Ambrizette  to  Cape 
l-'rii).  in  18"  south,  no  one  denied  the  claims  of  Portugal;  indeed, 
luiropean  indifference  to  Central  Africa  at  this  period  was  almost 
absolute,  and  continued  to  be  so.  except  from  the  geographical 
stanilpoint.  until  within  the  past  few  years.  Had  Portugal  then 
claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of  Africa  lying  between  her 
east  and  her  west  coast  possessions,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  European 
power  would  have  troubled  about  it  any  more  than  if  she  had 
claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  North  Pole.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
no  evidence  exists  that  any  such  claim  was  ever  made  until  within 
the  last  few  years.  No  doubt  one  or  two  isolated  expeditions  were 
sent  into  the  interior,  and  half-castes  and  natives  with  Portuguese 
names  and  titles  may  even  have  crossed  between  Angola  and  Mo- 
zambique ;  but  neither  legitimate  trade  nor  knowledge  of  the  coun- 
try was  promoted  by  such  excursions,  and  they  can  hardly  be 
regarded  as  an  evidence  of  effective  occupation.  This  effective 
occupation  was  really  confined  to  a  few  points  on  the  coast.  The 
immense  stretch  of  coast  between  Cape  Frio  and  Buffels  River  was 
unclaimed;  although,  as  we  have  seen,  Walfish  Bay  and  Angra 
i'efiucna  were  occupied  by  the  Dutch  Cape  colonists  in  the  previous 
century.  The  Cape  Colony,  only  finally  made  over  to  England  in 
1S15.  though  it  had  been  occupied  continuously  since  1806,  did  not 
exteiKl  l)t\Miul  lUiffels  River  on  the  west,  and  its  limit  northward 
was  cnfincd  witliin  an  irregular  line  drawn  from  Buffels  River 
southeast  to  the  Creat  h'ish  River.  All  beyond  this,  all  the  region 
where  now  are  Cai)e  farmers  was  as  unknown  and  as  untamed  as 
the  v.ilde-l  i)arts  of  Central  Africa.  The  total  area  of  Cape  Colony 
was  i»nly  ijo.(X)0  scjuare  miles,  and  the  total  population  61,000,  of 


THE     POSITION     IN     1815  45 

1698-1815 

whom  15,000  were  in  Cape  Town,  two-thirds  slaves — negroes  and 
Malays — the  latter  introduced  at  an  early  period  by  the  Dutch. 
Elephants  and  other  big  game  were  still  accessible  within  a  few 
miles  from  the  coast,  beyond  which  few  settlers  were  to  be  found. 
The  first  British  settlement  on  the  Natal  coast  was  not  made  for 
some  years  after  this ;  and  it  was  not  until  twenty  years  later  that 
the  first  Dutch  trek  or  migration  was  begun,  which  culminated  in 
the  founding  of  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State.  England 
objected  to  the  Boers  settling  in  Natal,  but  her  statesmen  and  her 
colonists  at  the  Cape  did  not  see  far  enough  ahead  to  extend  her 
claims  beyond  the  Orange  River. 

At  Delagoa  Bay  we  once  more  come  upon  ground  claimed  by 
Portugal,  whose  territory  stretched  as  far  north  as  Cape  Delgado, 
though  the  precise  limits  north  and  south  remained  to  be  settled 
at  a  later  perior.  At  this  date,  18 15,  and  for  many  years  after,  no 
serious  claim  of  dominion  was  advanced  by  the  Portuguese  beyond 
a  strip  of  the  coast,  varying  in  width,  and  along  the  River  Zambezi 
as  far  as  Zumbo.  Considerably  more  than  a  hundred  years  before, 
Portugal  was  compelled  to  abandon  all  her  conquests  to  the  north 
of  Cape  Delgado;  the  whole  coast  from  thence  to  jMagdoshu,  if 
not  farther  north,  was  under  the  sway  of  the  Imaums  of  Muscat, 
who  had  gradually  extended  their  influence  between  1698  and 
1807,  partly  by  conquest  from  the  Portuguese,  and  partly  from 
native  chiefs.  France  had  been  toying  with  Madagascar  for  170 
years,  and  had  actually  established  a  small  colony  at  Fort  Dauphin 
on  the  southeast  coast  in  the  seventeenth  century;  but  in  181 5  the 
island  was  practically  independent.  Mauritius  had  been  made  over 
to  England,  while  France  retained  Bourbon  (Reunion).  The  in- 
terior of  the  continent  was,  broadly  speaking,  unknown.  The 
Somali  and  Galla  countries  were  in  practically  undisputed  posses- 
sion of  native  tribes.  Neither  England,  France,  nor  Italy  seems 
to  have  dreamed  of  possessions  on  the  Red  Sea.  Abyssinia  was 
uncoveted,  and  Egypt  had  not  yet  cut  her  off  from  the  coast.  Not 
for  five  years  after  181 5  did  Egypt  begin  to  stretch  her  malign 
hand  southward  over  Nubia  and  the  Sudan ;  the  Upper  Nile  was 
unknown,  Khartum  had  not  been  founded ;  Kordofan,  Darfur,  and 
their  neighbors  were  still  independent,  while  the  great  lakes  existed 
only  on  the  half-mythical  maps  of  Ptolemy  and  the  medieval 
geographers. 

Thus,  then,  in  181 5,  when  Europe  was  at  liberty  to  start  on 


46  AFRICA 

1815 

that  career  of  procuress  in  all  directions,  which  has  had  undreamed-of 
results,  her  African  possessions  consisted  of  only  a  few  factories  and 
stations  and  tt>wns  on  the  coasts.  Effective  occujiation  hardly  ex- 
istctl  beyond  the  seaboard;  the  licart  of  Africa  was  an  unknown 
blank.  Serious  occupation  of  the  continent  as  a  whole,  as  America 
an<l  Ausiralia  were  beini:^  occupied,  was  probably  unth()U.e:iit  of. 
Ciormanv.  in  the  mculcrn  sense,  did  not  exist;  Holland  was  satisfied 
with  her  i,M-eat  colonies  of  culture;  bVance  had  hardly  bethouj^ht 
h.erself  oi  fresh  colonial  expansion;  England  had  (piite  enough 
(K-cupation  for  tlic  energies  of  her  surplus  population,  and  for  her 
commercial  atlventurcrs,  in  Canada,  Australia.  India,  and  the  East. 
Africa  she  valued  mainly  as  affording  stations  to  guard  her  route 
to  her  great  Asiatic  em])ire.  The  total  value  of  the  commerce  of 
the  African  continent  for  that  year  (including  slaves)  probably  did 
not  exceed  .Si  =0.000,000.  The  total  exports  could  hardly  have 
been  o\  er  $75,000,000,  more  than  half  coming  from  Egypt  and  the 
c'>nTUrios  on  the  Mediterranean.  So.  except  for  explorers,  for  sixty 
years  Africa  was  left  in  comparative  peace. 


Chapter   VI 

SIXTY  YEARS  OF  PREPARATION.     1815-1875 

^LTHOUGH  during  the  sixty  years  after  181 5  the  most 
/-\  important  annexation  made  in  Africa  by  a  European 
X  .m.  power  was  that  of  Algeria  by  France,  activity  in  another 
direction  was  quietly  going  on  which  has  led  to  important  results 
kvithin  the  past  few  years.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  period 
especially  we  were  enabled,  through  the  exertions  of  adventurous 
explorers,  to  form  some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  African  in- 
ferior. Even  before  the  conquest  of  Algeria  in  1830,  Caillie  had 
reached  Timbuktu,  and  other  explorers  had  crossed  the  desert,  or 
entered  from  the  west  coast,  and  made  known  the  Lake  Chad 
region,  the  Niger,  and  the  Central  Sudan  states.  It  was  in  this 
-egion  and  in  Abyssinia  and  the  Upper  Nile  countries  that  the 
greatest  exploring  activity  was  manifesterl  until  Livingstone  began 
lis  wanderings.  Tuckey's  failure  to  ascend  the  Congo  farther  than 
;he  first  rapids  left  that  great  river  to  sweep  its  broad  way  unutil- 
ized across  the  continent  for  another  sixty  years.  It  can  hardly  be 
>aid  that  the  interesting  discoveries  made  in  North  Africa  and  the 
N^iger  region  up  to  i860  had  much  effect  in  arousing  the  covetous- 
less  of  Europe. 

The  French  conquest  of  Algeria,  begun  in  1830  and  completed 
Dnly  after  long  years  of  sanguinary  struggle,  v/as  a  benefit  to  the 
:ivilized  world,  but  probably  no  other  power  envied  France  the 
possession  of  that  haunt  of  corsairs  and  home  of  Moslem  fanati- 
:ism.  The  truth  is  that  France,  for  many  years,  was  more  eager 
than  any  other  European  power  for  dominion  in  Africa.  She  was, 
indeed,  the  only  power  that  sought  to  rival  England  in  the  creation 
)i  a  colonial  empire;  she  has  stri\'cn  hard  to  make  up  by  annexa- 
tions elsewhere  for  all  tliat  she  lost  to  England  through  the  wars 
)f  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Un- 
fortunately for  her,  there  remained  nothing  to  be  annexed  that 
:ould  be  compared  t(j  tlie  territ(jries  she  had  lost.  Neither  in  Asia 
:ior  the  Pacific  has  she  been  able  to  find  anything  that  can  be  put  in 

47 


48  A  F  RICA 

1830-1866 

citinparison  with  Tntlia  and  Australia.  As  a  colony  of  settlement 
Alijeria  can  never  rival  Canada,  nor  even,  except  perhaps  for  south- 
ern luiropeans.  F.ritisli  South  Africa.  It  has  a  desert  for  its  "  Hin- 
terlaml."  Algeria  has.  no  doubt.  prosi)ered  greatly  under  French 
rule,  tluniijii  it  will  he  long  ere  France  is  able  to  recoup  herself  for 
the  outlay  (>f  the  S750.000.000  which  its  conquest  has  cost  her. 

While  iVancc  w.is  consolidating  her  position  in  Algeria,  she 
was  stoa^lily  extending  her  inlluence  in  the  Scneganibian  interior. 
So  long  as  sixty  years  ago  she  made  attempts  to  o])en  communica- 
tions between  Seiien'amhia  and  Algeria,  but  without  success.  The 
Scncgamhians,  like  the  Cape  Colonists,  were  continually  on  their 
tlefense  against  the  natives  of  the  interior,  who,  under  their  Mo- 
hammedan leaders,  such  as  El-PTaj  Omar,  did  their  best  to  drive 
the  I'rencli  into  tlie  sea.  But  there  could  be  little  doubt  of  the 
uhimatc  result.  \\'licn  Colonel  Faidherbe  retired  from  his  long 
governorship  (^f  tlie  colony  in  1865.  the  French  occupation  ex- 
tended to  the  Upper  Senegal;  French  inHuence  was  recog- 
nized by  treaty  from  Cape  Blanco  to  British  Gambia;  the  coast 
region  from  St.  Louis  to  the  British  frontier,  and  even  at  Casa- 
niansa  on  the  south,  and  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior, 
had  been  brought  under  subjection ;  an  administration  had  been 
established;  and  attempts  had  been  made  to  introduce  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cotton,  indigo,  and  other  products,  not.  however,  with  much 
success.  In  the  whole  interior  of  the  Sencgambian  region.  France, 
during  these  fifty  years,  had  entire  command  of  the  situation.  Eng- 
land not  conceiving  that  her  interests  demanded  interference  on 
her  part.  In  18^)5  a  strong  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
c.'inic  unaninifiMsly  ti)  the  res(jlution  "  that  all  further  extension  of 
territory  or  assumi)tion  of  government,  or  new  treaty  offering  any 
l)rnteciinn  to  native  tribes,  would  be  inexpedient."  Though  not 
rigorously  adliercd  to,  tlie  policy  has.  in  the  main,  been  carried  out 
with  rc-])ect  to  the  West  African  colonies  ever  since,  thus  leaving 
i-Vance  a  free  hand  to  extend  her  possessions  between  the  Senegal 
and  tl:e  (]u\\  of  Cuinca. 

Till  iSiT)  Cambia  had  been  all  but  abandoned,  owing  to  the 
aboIi:ii,n  of  tlie  slave-trade  in  i(So7.  A  few  British  merchants  frtjm 
Senegal  ilicn  -cttled  nu  tlie  island  of  St.  Mary  at  the  mouth  of  the 
ri\cr.  I'roni  iSji  to  1S43  it  was  subject  to  the  government  of 
.Sic-rra  I.coiu-:  then  after  twenty-three  years  of  indej)endence  it 
became  in  i<Sf.6  part  of  tlic  g(Aerninent  (jf  the  West  African  settle- 


SIXTY  YEARS   OF  PREPARATION   49 

1820-1861 

ments.  During  the  whole  period  of  French  activity  on  both  sides 
of  the  Gambia  no  attempt  was  made  to  extend  British  influence  in 
any  direction,  and  by  a  late  Anglo-French  arrangement  that  influ- 
ence has  been  restricted  practically  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  A 
little  more  activity  was  shown  in  Sierra  Leone,  which  acquired 
various  islands  and  tracts  of  country  by  treaty  before  1865,  though 
no  attempt  was  made  to  push  British  influence  into  the  interior 
or  along  the  coast  toward  Portuguese  Guinea.  Portuguese  Guinea 
remained  virtually  as  it  had  been  from  the  time  when  Portugal 
was  freed  from  Spanish  domination ;  its  precise  limits  have  only 
recently  been  defined. 

In  1820  the  Washington  Colonization  Society  made  the  first 
settlement  of  freed  negroes  at  Cape  Mesurado,  and  so  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  republic  of  Liberia,  recognized  by  the  European 
powers  as  an  independent  state  in  1847.  The  republic  extended  its 
domain  along  the  coast  to  the  borders  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  south- 
east to  the  negro  settlement  of  Maryland,  which  was  absorbed  in 
1857;  while  it  pushed  its  influence  for  an  indefinite  distance  into 
the  interior. 

Meantime  the  British  settlements  on  the  Gold  Coast  had  a  very 
checkered  career;  now  they  were  under  government  jurisdiction, 
and  again  they  were  abandoned  to  the  merchants.  Troubles  with 
Ashanti  complicated  matters,  while  the  Dutch  and  Danish  settle- 
ments hampered  trade  operations.  In  1850,  however,  Denmark 
made  over  her  settlements  to  England  for  $50,000.  By  a  conven- 
tion which  came  into  force  in  1868,  the  Dutch  were  confined  to  the 
west  of  the  Sweet  River,  their  extensive  possessions  of  tlie  pre- 
vious century  having  now  dwindled  down  to  Dixcove,  Apollonia, 
Secondee,  and  Commenda,  with  a  protectorate  over  th.e  two  W'as- 
saws,  Denkera,  and  the  country  of  Apollonia.  In  1871  Holland 
transferred  all  her  right  on  the  Gold  Coast  to  Great  Britain.  Al- 
though France  claims  to  have  acquired  portions  of  the  coast  (Grand 
Bassam  and  Assinie)  to  the  west  of  the  British  Colony  in  1838 
and  1842,  and  a  station  on  the  east,  Porto  Novo,  in  1868,  these 
were  really  unoccupied  till  1884,  and  at  any  time  up  to  within  the 
past  few  years  there  would  have  been  no  obstacle  to  declaring  the 
whole  of  the  coast  from  the  Liberian  boundary  to  tlie  Gaboon  under 
British  protection.  Had  this  been  dduc  it  would  have  prevented 
much  of  the  international  bitterness  of  late  years. 

In  1861  Lagos  was  acquired  by  England  from  the  native  king; 


50  A  1-  RICA 

1861-1862 

since  wliicli  time  tlic  colony  has  been  extended  cast  and  west, 
until  now  it  stretches  from  the  Uenin  i^iver  to  the  Denham  Waters 
at  Kotoiui.  and  includes  the  Yornba  country  in  the  interior  as  a 
protectorate.  r>ritish  traders  have  been  settled  on  the  Oil  Rivers 
for  a  cenlurv.  at  llrst  mainly  for  the  purjiose  of  carryinj]^  on  the 
slave-trade.  British  missionaries  have  been  at  work  in  the  Calabar 
res^ion  for  more  than  half  a  century,  and  over  a  lone;'  stretch  of 
coast  British  intluencc  was  actually,  if  not  nominally,  supreme; 
but  nt^  active  steps  seem  to  have  been  even  thoui^ht  of  to  secure  the 
whole  rei^^ion  from  any  ri.sk  of  foreign  interference.  The  period, 
however,  between  1S15  and  1875  was  marked  by  extensive  explor- 
ing' enterprise  in  the  Xij^^er  ree^ion.  tnainly  conducted  by  British 
subjects  or  at  British  cost.  Lander  had  traced  the  river  from 
Bussa  to  its  mouth.  Expedition  after  expedition,  at  a  fearful  ex- 
penditui-e  of  sufferinc^  and  life,  endeavored  to  explore  the  p^reat 
river  and  its  tributary  the  Benue.  and  establish  British  influence 
and  trade.  Baikie  founded  a  station  at  Lokoja,  at  the  confluence 
of  tlie  two  ri\ers;  model  farms  were  established  elsewhere,  and 
efforts  made  to  sujipress  the  slave-trade.  The  .i^rcat  expedition  of 
Barth  from  tlie  north  contributerl  a  wealth  of  information  on  the 
wliole  Xij^er  rci^ion.  Se\enty  vears  :i^n  the  far-siojited  and  shrewd 
nre.iqraphor  M'Ouecn  urj^ed  in  the  strongest  terms  the  duty  of 
I'.ngland  to  cstabh'sh  herself  in  the  Xiger  region  and  create  a  great 
"Central  African  Empire";  the  dread  of  extending  im]K*rial  re- 
si)onsibilities  still  possessed  those  charged  with  the  interests  of  the 
emi)ire.  After  niucli  expenditure  of  life  and  money  the  Xigcr 
was  virtually  abandoned — given  over  to  the  unsuijjiorted  enterprise 
of  i)rivate  traders.  All  the  time  T*"rance  was  steadily  pursuing  her 
way  inland  to  the  great  river. 

An  I'jiglish  mission  station  was  founded  at  Victoria,  on  the 
Cameroons  coast,  in  1858.  and  British  traders  virtually  dominated 
the  coast.  In  1S42  b^-ance  established  herself  on  the  fine  estuary 
of  the  (lal)o(.n,  and  twenty  rears  after  took  possession  of  the 
Ogovc.  It  wa'-  not.  however,  till  fifteen  years  later  that,  under 
the  leader-hi])  of  Do  I'ra/za.  I'rcnch  dominion  was  extended 
int(j  ll'.e  interior,  and  the  foimdations  were  laid  for  the  immense 
ac(iui.-itionv  of  l-'rame  between  the  coast  and  the  Congo  in  1884. 
The  coa>t  down  to  ilic  ("ape  Ixmndary  remained  much  as  it  was  in 
1815.  I'ruaie  trading  firms  of  \-arious  nationalities  had  stati(jns 
at  the  mouth  oi  the  Congo  and  along  the  coast  to  the  north,  but 


SIXTY     YEARS      OF     PREPARATION      51 

1852-1875 

no  one  had  the  curiosity  to  seek  to  discover  what  lay  beyond 
Tuckey's  farthest  point  at  Yellala  Falls.  Portugal  was  undisturbed 
in  her  West  African  possessions.  Her  traders  had  stations  in  the 
interior,  from  which  caravans  went  to  and  from  the  coast,  mainly 
for  slaves  and  ivory.  To  Portugal  ought  naturally  to  have  fallen 
the  exploration  of  the  Congo,  but  such  enterprise  as  that  had 
long  been  beyond  the  range  of  her  energies.  Missionaries,  explor- 
ers, and  traders  had  ventured  into  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand. 
Although  a  number  of  islands  off  i\ngra  Pequeiia  were  declared 
British  in  1867,  and  Walfish  Bay  in  1878,  the  latter  was  not  actu- 
ally annexed  to  the  Cape  till  1884. 

]\Ieanwhile,  Cape  Colony  itself  had  its  hands  full  of  trouble. 
War  after  war  with  the  Kaffirs  kept  up  for  years  a  feeling  of  in- 
security, and  compelled  the  colony  to  push  its  boundaries  farther 
and  farther  north.  Kaffraria  was  annexed  in  1865;  in  1871 
Basutoland  came  under  British  rule.  A  constitution  was  established 
in  1853,  ^^^  responsible  government  in  1872.  By  opening  up  the 
country  by  roads  and  railways,  and  encouraging  immigration,  the 
colony  steadily  developed.  The  Orange  River  had  been  reached ; 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  had  been  founded  and 
recognized,  the  former  in  1854  and  the  latter  in  1852;  Natal  had 
been  created  an  independent  colony  in  1856;  and,  though  patches 
of  native  territory  still  here  and  there  awaited  formal  annexation, 
by  1875  all  the  country  up  to  the  Orange  River  and  the  Orange 
Free  State  was  virtually  under  British  influence,  though  the  ex- 
tension of  this  influence  was  carried  on  slowly  and  with  reluctance 
on  the  part  of  tlie  home  government.  Beyond  Natal  there  remained 
the  Zululand  gap  between  the  British  and  Portuguese  spheres,  the 
latter  having  undergone  little  or  no  change  during  the  long  interval. 
Alovements  were  taking  place  among  the  native  tribes  both  to  the 
north  and  tlie  south  of  the  Zambezi ;  about  1845  ^^""^  Matabele  had 
crossed  the  Limpopo  and  established  themselves  by  force  in  the 
country  of  the  Alashonas  and  kindred  tribes.  In  1823  Captain 
Owen,  while  carrying  out  his  surveys  on  the  east  coast,  obtained 
from  native  chiefs  a  cession  of  Dclagoa  Bay,  which  was,  moreover, 
claimed  for  Fngland  in  virtue  of  the  Dutch  settlement  there  in 
1S20.  Fngland  went  so  far  as  to  found  a  station  named  Bombay 
ojjpositc  Lourenco  ^iar(|uez,  and  there  were  continual  disputes 
iov  possession  between  licr  and  Portugal  up  to  1875,  the  Transvaal 
also  putting  in  a  claim  for  a  section  of  coast.     At  last  the  rival 


52  AFRICA 

1863-1875 

claims  were  rcfcrrctl  for  arliitration  to  tlie  President  of  the  French 
Ivopnhhc.  Marshal  MacMahon.  who  decided  in  favor  of  Portugal, 
even  S"oinj^  t«)  tlie  extreme  of  .cri^'i"?  Portuj^al  more  territory  than 
slie  had  claimed  in  her  statement.  The  chief  ground  of  Portu- 
gal's claim  was  the  "  Treaty  of  Monomotapa,"  which  had  lapsed 
long  iK'fore.  The  present  town  of  Louren(;o  Marquez  was  only 
foumied  in  1867  on  the  site  of  an  old  village  of  the  same  name. 

Hut  a  new  era  for  the  continent  had  hegun.  Livingstone  had 
entered  Africa,  and  had  initiated  those  explorations  which  opened 
\v)  the  heart  of  t!ie  ctMitinent,  and  led  to  that  scramble  which  is 
u;  w  all  hut  completed.  Before  his  death  in  i«^73  he  had  been  to 
Lake  Xgami,  had  completed  that  journey  across  the  continent 
which  revealed  the  course  of  the  Zambezi,  had  reported  the  first 
authentic  information  as  to  the  character  of  the  country  watered 
by  it  and  its  tributaries,  and  had  carried  the  British  name  and 
imluence  into  regions  which  only  the  other  day  became  appanages 
of  the  imperial  crown.  Others  had  followed  in  Livingstone's 
footsteps — Galton  and  Andcrsson  in  Damaraland,  Baines  in  the 
same  region  and  east  to  Matabeleland  (whose  riches  he  revealed  to 
the  modern  world)  and  the  Zambezi;  while  others — missionaries, 
explorers,  hunters,  and  traders — were  penetrating  into  every  cor- 
nier of  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  Zambezi.  Livingstone 
had  concluded  his  great  Zambezi  expedition  in  1863,  which, 
disastrous  as  it  was  in  some  respects,  opened  up  what  was  practi- 
cally a  new  country  to  the  world,  and  led  to  the  foundation  of 
tli^jse  trading  and  missionary  stations  in  Xyasaland  which  were 
destined  to  form  the  basis  of  British  influence  in  one  of  the  most 
jjromising  regions  of  Central  Africa.  In  1865  Livingstone  began 
his  flnal  wanderings,  that  led  him  through  the  heart  of  Africa  to 
T;mgaiiyika  and  the  Lualaba,  which  he  would  fain  have  followed 
to  its  outflow  at  tlie  sea;  but  instead  death  overtook  him  in  1873 
on  the  swam()y  shores  of  Bangweolo,  one  of  the  great  lake-feeders 
of  the  mysterious  river.  Meantime,  in  January,  1871,  Stanley  had 
already  entered  the  thresh(jld  of  that  continent  which  he  was 
destined  within  the  next  few  years,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
transform. 

In  tlie  Zanzibar  coast  region,  which,  since  the  beginning  of 
tlie  seventeenth  century,  had  been  nominally  at  least  under  the 
Imaums  of  Mu>cat,  there  were  constant  attempts  of  the  local 
sultans  to  e-tabli-h  their  independence;  and  on  the  cliange  of  dy- 


DWill    I.I\l.\(,Sni.\K 


fl'.Mi-n    1S1.5.       Died    iS;3) 
/7/,.;r.;.;r,//-//  fy^im   life 


SIXTY     YEARS      OF     PREPARATION      53 

1824-1850 

nasty  in  Oman,  which  took  place  on  the  accession  of  the  Al  bin 
Saidi  to  power,  several  of  the  lieutenant  governors  on  the  coast 
refused  to  accept  allegiance.  The  Imaum  Sey'id  Said,  however, 
had  made  himself  master  of  Patta,  Brava,  Lamu,  Zanzibar,  Pemba, 
and  Kilwa,  and  threatened  to  attack  Mombasa,  where  the  aged 
Soliman  Ben  Ali,  as  representing  the  governor  under  the  older 
rulers  of  Oman,  was  in  power.  Soliman  appealed  to  Captain 
Owen,  whose  squadron  was  then  surveying  the  coast,  and  he,  in 
1824,  took  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain  Mombasa  and  its 
dependency,  Pemba,  and  all  the  coast  between  Melinde  and  Pan- 
gani ;  Brava  also  was  placed  under  protection,  and  many  advan- 
tageous concessions  were  made  to  the  British.  But  Captain  Owen 
was  more  than  half  a  century  before  his  time;  in  1828  the  British 
Government,  after  Mombasa  had  been  occupied  for  four  years, 
yielding  to  the  jealousy  of  the  East  India  Company,  abandoned 
the  concession,  and  all  the  region  was  left  to  its  fate  for  another 
sixty  years. 

When  the  Imaum  Sey'id  Said  had  built  a  palace  at  Zanzibar, 
and  had  finally  chosen  this  city  as  his  residence,  Captain  Hammer- 
ton  was  sent  there  in  December,  1841,  as  England's  first  consul, 
and  as  the  political  agent  for  India.  The  struggles  of  Mombasa 
with  Muscat  were  renewed,  but  the  latter  in  the  end  prevailed, 
so  that  when,  in  1861,  Sey'id  Majid  (who  succeeded  Sey'id  Said 
in  1856)  was  confirmed  by  Lord  Canning  in  the  territories  of 
Zanzibar,  the  Sultan's  rule  extended  over  the  whole  coast  and  the 
islands  from  Cape  Delgado  to  Magdoshu.  Moreover,  the  sultan's 
influence,  if  not  jurisdiction,  had  extended  far  into  the  interior, 
and  his  orders  were  obeyed  even  on  Lake  Tanganyika.  But  before 
Livingstone  set  eyes  on  that  lake,  discoveries  had  been  made  which 
changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  interior,  and  led  to  further  enter- 
prises, which  culminated  in  the  scramble  of  the  last  few  years.  The 
Arabs,  returning  from  their  journeys  in  the  interior,  had  told  of 
great  lakes  which  they  themselves  had  navigated.  In  1848  Reb- 
mann  caught  sight  of  the  snows  of  Kilimanjaro.  Ten  years  later 
Burton  and  Speke  went  into  the  interior  to  find  those  great  lakes, 
already  known  to  the  Arabs,  and  they  were  able  to  place  Tangan- 
yika and  Victoria  Nyanza  on  the  map.  Speke,  who  first  saw  the 
latter,  had  thus  discovered  the  great  source  of  the  Nile,  and,  with 
his  companion.  Grant,  a  year  or  two  later,  he  was  able  to  add  still 
further  to  our  knowledi^c  of  Egypt's  liistorical  river,  and  to  tell 


54  A  F  U  I  C  A 

1850-1864 

(if  the  great  kinj^dom  of  Uganda  and  its  rnlcr  Mtesa,  who  subse- 
quently played  so  important  a  part  in  unwittingly  promoting  Brit- 
ish interests.  In  18(14  Baker  discovered  the  Albert  Nyanza,  and 
made  further  addititMis  to  knowledge  of  a  region  which  is  now 
virtually  within  the  British  sphere.  Burton  and  Speke  came  upon 
stations  far  in  the  interior,  ftnmded  by  Arabs,  through  whose  enter- 
prise the  slave-trade  had  reached  gigantic  dimensions. 

While  to  British  explorers  is  due  the  credit  of  the  bulk  of  the 
important  work  done  in  Central  Africa  up  to  1875.  travelers  of 
other  nationalities  contributed  their  share  to  the  o])ening  up  of 
t!ie  continent  to  knowledge  and  cnterpri.se.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  names  coimected  with  the  exploration  of  East  Africa 
is  that  (if  \'(in  der  Dccken.  Between  i860  and  1865  he  undertook 
extensive  explorations  in  the  Kilimanjaro  region,  and  visited  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  coast  between  Cape  Delgado  and  the  River  Jub. 
While  exploring  this  river  he  lost  his  life,  but  not  before  he  had 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  German  occupation  of  these  districts  of 
Africa.  From  the  Jub  River  on  August  14,  1864,  he  writes:  "I 
am  persuaded  that  in  a  short  time  a  colony  established  here  would 
be  most  successful,  and  after  two  or  three  years  would  be  self- 
su()porting.  It  would  become  of  special  importance  after  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal.  It  is  unfortunate  that  v>e  Germans  allow 
such  opportimities  of  acquiring  colonies  to  slij),  especially  at  a 
time  when  it  would  be  of  importance  to  the  navy."  As  a  German 
writer  has  said,  had  it  not  been  for  Von  der  Dccken's  death,  Ger- 
many might  have  had  colonies  twenty  years  sooner  than  she  did. 
'!'wo  years  later  Olto  Kersten.  one  of  Von  der  Deckcn's  compan- 
ions, published  an  article  on  the  colonization  of  East  Africa,  in 
wr.'cli  he  wrtjte:  "Von  der  Decken  cjn  many  occasions  said  that 
he  would  not  hesitate,  if  Sey'id  ]\Iajid  agreed  to  it,  to  buy  Mom- 
basa fn*m  tlie  sultan  in  order  to  found  an  cstablisluncnt  and  place 
the  commerce  of  the  interior  in  the  hands  of  luu-opeans,  and  espe- 
cially of  Germans.  After  two  or  three  years'  stay  at  Chagga,  on 
the  eastern  sliore  of  \'ictoria  Xvanza,  tlie  colonists  would  obtain 
more  results  tlian  emigrants  who  wander  far  across  liic  seas.  I 
recommend  Id  my  country  an  enterprise  as  achantageous  as  it  is 
gloriou>  {>]■  infli\i(luals  and  for  the  nation."'  Though  V'on  der 
Decken  held  exaggerated  \-iews  as  to  the  x'alue  of  this  ])art  of 
Africa  f>»r  colon i/ing  j)ur])oses.  Germany  was  at  the  time  too 
mucli  uc'jnpicd  with  licr  position  in  Ivurope  to  be  able  to  take  mcas- 


SIXTY     YEARS      OF     PREPARATION       55 

1864-1873 

ures  to  improve  her  position  beyond  the  seas.  But  these  two 
utterances  are  noteworthy  as  being  probably  the  first  hint  that  Ger- 
many might  in  the  future  enter  the  field  as  a  colonizing  power  in 
Africa.  At  the  time  that  Von  der  Decken  wrote,  and  for  twenty 
years  after,  British  influence  was  supreme  at  Zanzibar ;  the  suc- 
cession of  British  representatives  at  the  court  of  the  sultan  were 
virtually  political  residents,  and  guided  the  sultan's  policy  as  abso- 
lutely as  do  similar  functionaries  at  the  feudatory  courts  of  India. 
Sir  John  Kirk,  who  was  connected  with  Zanzibar  from  1866  to 
1887,  was  undoubtedly  more  powerful  than  the  sultan  himself;  and 
twenty-five  years  ago,  and  indeed  down  to  1S84,  British  supremacy 
at  Zanzibar  was  deemed  almost  as  indispensable  to  British  inter- 
ests in  India  and  in  East  Africa  as  is  the  possession  of  Aden  itself. 
British  Indian  merchants  were  settled  all  along  the  coast  from 
Cape  Delgado  to  Mombasa,  and  all  but  a  fraction  of  the  trade  was 
in  their  hands. 

There  was  one  episode  of  this  period  to  which  brief  allusion 
must  be  made.  As  the  result  of  an  inquiry  by  a  Parliamentary 
committee  into  the  slave  trade  in  East  Africa,  Sir  Bartle  Frere 
was,  in  November,  1872,  appointed  special  envoy  to  the  sultans 
of  Zanzibar  and  Aluscat  to  induce  them  to  sign  a  treaty  rendering 
the  export  of  slaves  from  Africa  illegal.  Frere  spent  some  three 
months  in  Zanzil^ar  and  in  visiting  the  coast  of  the  mainland.  The 
sultan  was,  however,  extremely  obstinate,  and  could  not  be  induced 
to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  British  Government,  though  these 
were  supported  by  the  representatives  of  Germany  and  the  United 
States.  In  the  meantimie  France  took  advantage  of  the  position 
to  advise  the  sultan  to  hold  out,  promising  to  support  him  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  export  of  slaves,  and  to  lend  him  the  aid  of 
a  squadron  of  her  fleet.  The  sultan  was  so  intensely  irritated  at 
th.e  demands  of  the  British  envoy,  that  he  actually  offered  the  pro- 
tection of  the  whole  of  his  dominion  to  France.  France,  however, 
had  not  yet  recovered  from  her  defeat  by  Germany,  and  by  the 
time  her  squadron  was  ready  to  sail  for  Zanzibar,  Dr.  John  Kirk, 
in  whom  the  sultan  and  the  Arabs  had  the  utmost  confidence,  by 
his  tact  and  firmness,  his  thorough  knowledge  of  the  sultan's  char- 
acter and  of  local  conditions,  succeeded  in  completing  the  work 
begun  by  Sir  Bartle  h'rcrc ;  and  th.e  treaty  was  signed  on  June  5, 
1S73.  The  Frencli  representative  made  himself  so  obnoxious  that 
he  had  to  be  withdrawn,  and  all  idea  of  French  protection  was 


66  A  F  RICA 

1815-1875 

baiiislicd  from  the  sultan's  niinil.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
Trance,  in  1S4J.  had  joined  with  England  in  guaranteeing  the 
sultan's  iiulepciulcnce. 

Proceeding  northward,  we  find  but  little  alteration  in  the  po- 
sition between  1815  and  1875.  Massawa  had  been  occupied  by 
the  Turks  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  from  that  date 
the  whole  of  the  Red  Sea  coast  may  be  regarded  as  Egyptian,  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  Abyssinia  to  obtain  a  port  always  ending  in 
failure.  Early  in  the  century  Erance  began  to  seek  for  a  footing 
on  tlie  Red  Sea.  The  port  of  Ait,  to  the  north  of  the  Straits  of 
Babelmandeb.  was  purchased  by  a  Erench  merchant  in  1835  in 
tlie  hope  of  attracting  tlie  trade  of  Abyssinia.  Various  other  at- 
tempts were  made  to  obtain  a  footing  near  Massawa,  and  to  in- 
trigue against  Abyssinia,  with  no  permanent  result,  except  that 
Obock,  on  Tajura  Bay  opposite  Aden,  was  bought  in  1862.  Egypt 
had  taken  possession  of  Berbera  and  aimed  at  extending  her  in- 
fluence through  Harrar  to  Slioa,  but  her  purpose  was  defeated. 
Abyssinia  was  much  as  it  had  been,  notwithstanding  the  attempts 
of  Erance  in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century,  its  invasion  by  a 
British  army,  and  its  troubles  with  Egypt,  This  latter  power, 
whose  connection  with  Turkey  had  become  more  and  more  slender, 
had  by  1875  advanced  southward  along  the  Nile,  and  had  virtually 
annexed  Kordofan  and  Darfur,  and  the  whole  of  the  country  up  to 
the  Albert  Xvanza.  Gordon  was  already  in  her  service,  and  Emin 
Pasha  joined  him  in  the  year  following. 

The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  is  a  notable  event 
bearing  upon  the  destmy  of  Africa.  As  a  new  highway  to  India 
it  greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  Egypt,  and  led  to  a  more  intense 
rivalry  than  before  between  England  and  Erance  for  paramount 
influence  in  that  country.  Moreover,  it  greatly  increased  the  strate- 
gical value  not  only  of  Aden,  but  of  the  ports  on  the  opposite  coast 
of  Africa,  and  of  the  island  of  Sokotra,  which  was  taken  under  the 
v/ing  of  England  in  1876.  having  been  looked  upon  as  under  British 
influence  lung  before  that.  1'he  greater  island  of  Madagascar, 
farther  south,  continued  to  receive  attentions  from  Erance  at  in- 
tervals during  tlie  wliolc  of  tlie  period  under  notice.  The  various 
attemjits  at  cstablisliing  a  fcjoting  on  the  main  island  failed,  though 
the  island  of  Sainte  .Marie  on  the  east  coast  was  reoccupied  in  1819, 
Xossi-IU'  on  the  west  coast  taken  p(jssession  of  in  1840.  and  Mayottc 
in  1841. 


SIXTY     YEARS      OF     PREPARATION       57 

1815-1875 

Thus,  then,  the  progress  of  partition  among  the  European 
powers  had  been  comparatively  slow  and  insignificant  during  the 
sixty  years  that  had  elapsed  since  1815.  Germany  as  a  colonizing 
power  had  not  yet  set  foot  upon  the  continent.  Great  Britain  had 
certainly  pushed  her  influence  and  jurisdiction  northward  from 
the  Cape  as  it  stood  in  181 5,  but  it  was  reluctantly  and  slowly.  Her 
west  coast  colonies  were  mere  patches.  Her  influence  was  felt 
extensively  in  the  Niger  region  and  in  the  Zanzibar  dominions,  but 
it  was  unofficial  and  unsecured  by  treaties.  Her  supremacy  in 
Egypt  had  become  more  and  more  marked.  France  was  the  only 
power  that  showed  any  eagerness  for  steady  annexation  and  any 
foresight  as  to  future  contingencies.  In  short,  the  great  struggle 
had  not  yet  begun;  but  it  was  imminent.  Stanley's  memorable 
journey  across  the  continent,  and  especially  his  discovery  of  the 
great  Congo  waterway,  may  be  regarded  as  the  initiatory  episode. 


Chapter    VII 

PRELIMINARIES  TO  PARTITION.     1875-1883 

FROM  about  1850  the  interest  in  Africa  grew  more  and  more 
intense  and  \videspread.  Even  after  that  date  cargoes  of 
slaves  were  shipped  from  tlie  west  coast  to  America,  but 
as  a  result  of  the  American  Civil  War  and  the  increased  activity 
of  British  anti-slavery  cruisers,  the  horrors  of  the  transatlantic 
traffic  in  humanity  were  at  last  put  an  end  to.  The  traffic  may 
have  lingered  in  the  Portuguese  parts  of  Angola,  for  there  were 
still  Brazil  and  Cuba  to  be  supplied;  when,  many  years  before, 
all  other  civilized  nations  agreed  to  suppress  the  traffic,  Portugal 
had  begged  for,  and  obtained,  the  insertion  of  a  clause  excepting 
her  African  ports  from  the  operation  of  the  treaty.  But  if  tlicre 
were  those  who  flattered  themselves  that  the  African  slave-trade 
was  dead,  they  were  soon  undeceived.  Li\'ing>tone,  and  other 
travelers  and  missionaries,  awoke  the  world  to  the  fact  that  the 
transatlantic  slave-trade  was  really  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
the  traffic  which  harrowed  the  Dark  Continent.  The  whole  of 
Africa  between  the  tropics  was  a  hunting-ground  for  the  so-called 
Arabs,  who  had  for  long  past  been  making  their  way  from  the  north 
and  from  the  eastern  coast.  When  Livingstone  reached  the  heart 
of  the  continent  at  Nyangwe  lie  finind  their  malign  influence  every- 
where present.  The  various  stages  in  the  sj)rcad  of  Islam  in 
Africa,  and  the  continual  growth  of  tlie  trafilc  in  slaves  and  ivory 
carried  on  by  the  Arabs  and  half-breeds  from  the  cast,  is  a  subject 
of  vast  interest.  Formerly  these  Arabs  were  content  to  remain 
on  the  ciiast  aiid  purchase  from  the  natives  what  tlic  latter  brought 
down;  but  owing  to  \'arious  causes  they  thcmscKcs,  in  recent 
years,  have  led  or  sent  their  own  caraxans  into  the  interior,  with 
what  results  every  reader  of  Livingstone  and  Stanley  kiKnvs.  fh-cat 
regions  have  been  devastated,  and  whole  touns.  and  even  tribes, 
almost  exterminated  for  the  sake  of  the  ivory  which  they  j)ossesscd. 
I-"or  every  slave  br<;ught  to  the  coast  to  be  shipped  across  to  yXrabia 
or  Madagascar,  or  sent  north  to  Morocco,  Tripoli,  and  Kgypt  by 

58 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION         59 

1848-1875 

caravan  route,  probably  half  a  dozen  natives  had  been  slaughtered. 
As  this  feature  in  the  life  of  Central  Africa  became  more  and  more 
keenly  recognized,  the  philanthropists  of  the  world  combined  to 
suppress  it,  and  in  this  way  the  interest  in  Central  Africa  was  in- 
tensified. 

Another  considerable  section  of  civilized  mankind  became  fas- 
cinated with  the  discoveries  which  were  gradually  revealing  to  us 
the  wonderful  character  of  a  continent  whose  periphery  was  first 
correctly  mapped  in  the  schooldays  of  many  now  living.  Rebmann 
and  Krapf;  Burton,  Speke,  and  Grant;  Baker,  Schweinfurth,  and 
Nachtigal ;  Livingstone  above  all,  besides  many  men  of  minor  note, 
had  aroused  an  interest  in  Africa  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
geography  even  in  the  days  when  Arctic  exploration  was  at  its 
height.  Stanley's  story  of  how  he  found  Livingstone  served  to 
intensify  this  interest,  keen  and  widespread  as  it  was,  while  Liv- 
ingstone's death  turned  African  exploration  into  a  kind  of  crusade. 
Cameron's  remarkable  journey  across  Africa  from  east  to  west 
in  1873-1875  helped  us  still  further  to  realize  the  conditions  of  the 
interior.  Missionary  effort  was  greatly  increased  and  strengthened, 
especially  in  East  Africa,  as  far  inland  as  Lake  Nyasa,  with  which 
the  name  of  Livingstone  is  so  intimately  associated.  Thus  it  might 
be  said  that  when  Stanley  started  on  his  memorable  journey  across 
the  Dark  Continent  in  1875  the  whole  civilized  world  had  an  inter- 
est in  the  results  of  his  expedition.  Letter  after  letter  from  the 
great  explorer,  and  telegram  after  telegram  from  the  heart  of 
Africa,  as  to  the  fortunes  of  the  expedition,  served  to  fan  this 
interest  and  kindle  it  into  a  world-wide  enthusiasm. 

To  tlie  work  accomplished  by  Stanley  more  than  to  that  of 
any  other  explorer  it  is  due  that  this  somewhat  abstract  enthusiasm 
for  Africa  was,  in  the  space  of  a  comparatively  few  years,  precip- 
itated into  action  on  the  part  of  tlie  states  of  Europe.  But  that 
action  did  not  come  for  some  time  after  the  explorer  had  emerged 
from  the  Congo.  There  is  little  need  to  recount  the  story  of  an 
expedition  in  many  respects  among  the  most  remarkable  which 
ever  entered  Africa.  Stanley  himself  was  a  man  of  action,  prepared 
to  carry  out  his  purpose  at  all  hazards;  he  was  no  mere  abstract 
geographer  or  general  philantliropist.  As  with  all  great  men  of 
action,  his  deeds  will  beget  deeds  on  the  part  of  others.  No  man 
knew  better  than  he  how  to  nerve  liis  fellowmen  to  action.  His 
letters  from  Uganda,   describing  with  dramatic  realism  his  long 


60  A  r  K  I  C  A 

1875-1876 

interviews  with  tlic  clever  if  somewhat  artful  M'tcsa,  roused  Chris- 
temiom  to  enthusiasm.  At  nncc  an  army  of  missionaries,  Eng-- 
lish  first,  followeil  by  I'^'ench.  was  sent  out  to  take  posses- 
<\ou,  in  the  najne  of  their  M.astcr,  of  one  of  the  most  powerful 
kingdoms  in  Central  Africa.  This  may  indeed  be  said  to  have  been 
the  tirst  tangible  result  of  Stanley's  journey — a  result  which  was 
not  without  its  inlluence  in  the  iinal  scramble. 

Stanley  was  still  in  the  heart  of  Africa  when  a  movement  was 
initiated  wliich  may  be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  ultimate 
jiartition  of  the  continent  among  the  powers  of  Europe.  The 
Colonial  aspirations  of  Germany  were  being  awakened.  She  was 
still  flushed  with  the  fruits  of  her  great  victory  over  France.  She 
was  now  a  unitetl  empire,  IxMit  on  achieving  what  Germans  would 
call  world-greatness,  and  new  energy  had  been  infused  into 
her  commercial  life.  Her  merchants  were  on  the  lookout  for  fresh 
fields;  their  eyes  were  eagerly  turned  to  the  luist  and  to  Africa. 
lUit  at  present  the  only  action  was  that  taken  by  private  adven- 
turers; Bismarck  had  more  important  matters  demanding  his  ener- 
gies. It  remained  ior  another  potentate  to  inaugurate  a  movement 
which,  witliin  fifteen  years,  was  to  make  Africa  little  more  than  a 
political  appendage  to  Europe, 

W'lien  Stanley's  first  letter  came  home,  Leopold,  King  of  the 
Belgians,  was  in  his  prime.  lie  was  just  forty  years  old  and  had 
been  on  tlie  throne  of  Belgium  for  ten  years.  The  king-  was  then, 
as  he  is  now.  a  man  of  restless  energy,  ambitious  of  distinction  fcjr 
himself  and  his  little  kingdom,  greatly  interested  in  the  promotion 
of  commerce  and  the  arts,  and  with  a  special  love  for  geograi)hy. 
The  field  for  his  energies  as  the  sovereign  of  a  small,  neutral,  and 
cr)mpara*.i\cly  ])(Kjr  kingdom  was  limited.  He  had  no  great  army, 
no  great  licet,  no  ever-recurring  political  comjjlications  to  engage 
Iiis  aiteiui'in  (-utside  of  his  own  domain.  It  was  natural  that  a  man 
of  his  energies  and  ambitions  should  \\\sh  fur  a  sphere  of  more 
C' ismopr. Titan  action  than  he  could  find  within  his  ov>n  borders,  or 
even  in  iuiripe.  Possil)ly  also  he  desired  that  as  his  kingdom  could 
not,  by  any  cliance,  be  great  politicallv,  it  miglit  at  least  expand  com- 
mercially;  if  it  could  not  stretch  its  lin-iits  in  Europe,  there  was  a 
wlujle  continent,  almo.-t  un.MCcnpied  and  untouclied.  in  which  he 
and  his  [)eop!e  niii^lu  find  al/imdant  room  for  their  surplus  energies. 
There  is  no  nccil  to  attempt  to  fatlio'in  all  tl'^e  motives  of  the  King 
of  the  Belgians  in  -uninioning  to  Brussels  on  September  12,  1S76, 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION        61 

1876 

a  select  conference  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  exploration  and 
the  civilization  of  Africa,  and  the  means  of  opening  up  the  interior 
of  the  continent  to  the  commerce,  industry,  and  scientific  enterprise 
of  the  civilized  world.  But  in  summoning  the  conference  the  king 
indicated  his  desire  that  it  should  consider  what  measures  might  be 
adopted  to  extinguish  the  terrible  scourge  of  slavery,  which,  though 
broken  up  on  the  west  coast,  was  known  still  to  continue  its  deso- 
lating influence  over  wide  and  populous  tracts  in  the  interior  of  the 
continent. 

It  is  hard  to  realize  all  that  has  happened  during  the  years  that 
have  passed  since  this  memorable  meeting  in  Brussels.  Have  we 
any  warrant  in  concluding  that  the  King  of  the  Belgians  had  in 
view  from  the  first  the  ultimate  creation  of  a  great  African  empire, 
of  which  he  himself  should  be  the  head,  and  which  might  place 
Belgium  on  a  level  with  Holland  as  a  colonizing  power?  It  is  hard 
to  say;  probably  Leopold  had  not  formulated  to  himself  any  very 
precise  scheme.^  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  September,  1876, 
Stanley  was  on  his  march  from  Lake  Tanganyika  to  Nyangwe,  and 
that  as  yet  he  had  not  looked  upon  the  wide  Lualaba,  which  he  w^as 
destined  to  trace  down  to  the  Atlantic  as  the  Congo.  The  King 
of  the  Belgians,  when  he  convened  the  meeting  of  geographers  and 
philanthropists,  knew  no  more  about  the  Lualaba  and  its  ultimate 
destination  than  did  anyone  else  who  took  an  interest  in  Africa; 
and,  indeed,  his  attention  was  not  directed  to  V/est  Africa  at  all, 
but  to  the  east  coast  and  to  East  Central  Africa.  In  the  initiation 
and  direction  of  an  organization  for  opening  up  the  long-neglected 
continent  to  science,  industry,  and  civilization,  there  seemed  ample 
scope  for  the  king's  energies  and  philanthropic  aspirations,  and 
for  that  craving  for  distinction  which  kings  share  with  other  mor- 
tals. It  must  be  admitted  that  had  Leopold's  design  been  carried 
out  as  he  planned  it  we  should  have  learned  more  about  the  heart 
of  Africa  in  a  few  years  than  our  ancestors  had  during  the  four 
centuries  which  had  elapsed  since  the  Portuguese  began  to  creep 
down  and  around  its  coasts.  But  human  nature  and  national 
jealousies  were,  as  might  have  been  expected,  too  strong  for  com- 
bined and  disinterested  international  action  and  for  the  philanthrop- 
ical  aims  put  forward  by  the  king. 

^  P)Ut  it  is  of  interest  to  remember  that  long  before  this  and  before  he  came 
to  tile  throne,  Leopold  wliile  traveling  in  the  cast,  serionsly  contemplated  the 
acquisition  of  part  of  Borneo,  or  of  some  other  island  in  the  eastern  archi- 
pelago. 


62  A  F  RICA 

1876-1877 

At  the  Bnisscls  Conference  of  September  12,  1876,  the 
nationalities  represented  were  Great  Britain.  Belgium,  Austria- 
Hungary.  I'Vance.  Germany.  Ttaly.  and  Russia.  These  national  rep- 
resentatives consistetl  of  tiie  presidents  of  the  various  geographical 
scKieties.  African  explorers,  and  others  interested  in  the  continent; 
they  were  in  no  sense  delegates  from  their  governments.  The  King 
of  the  Belgi.'ins  himself  was  really  acting  in  his  private  capacity 
and  in  no  way  as  involving  any  responsibility  on  the  part  of  his 
kingdom.  The  conference  sat  for  three  days,  and  as  a  result  of 
their  deliberations  it  was  agreed  that  an  International  Commission, 
or  International  African  Association,  should  be  founded,  having  its 
seat  at  Brussels,  for  the  exploration  and  civilization  of  Central 
Africa;  and  that  each  nation  willing  to  cooperate  should  form  a 
National  Committee  to  collect  subscriptions  for  the  common  object 
and  send  delegates  to  the  commission. 

The  international  character  of  the  movement  was  not  long 
maintained.  In  luigland  the  subject  was  discussed  at  the  Council 
of  the  Royal  Geograpliical  Society,  to  which  body  naturally  fell 
the  task  of  organizing  the  Xational  Committee  in  that  country. 
Difficulties  of  an  obvious  kiiul  were  foreseen,  which  rendered  it 
desirable  that  such  a  committee,  while  maintaining  friendly  rela- 
tions of  correspondence  with  the  Belgian  and  other  committees, 
should  not  trammel  itself  with  engagements  of  an  international  na- 
ture, or  with  objects  other  than  those  of  geography.  Xo  British 
delegates  were  therefore  appointed  to  the  International  Commission 
at  Brussels.  Instead,  the  African  Exploration  Fund  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  was  established  in  March.  1877. 

Xational  Committees  as  brandies  of  tlie  International  Asso- 
ciation were  formed  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary.  Spain.  Portu- 
gal. France.  Xetherlands.  Italy,  Russia.  Switzerland',  and  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  in  Belgium.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Central  Com- 
mittee, held  in  P.russels  on  June  20  and  21.  1877.  it  was  found  that 
tlie  Iklgian  Conimittce  had  already  subscrihcd  .'^57.400.  besides 
S8800  annual  contribution.  By  June.  1870,  P.elgium's  contribution 
had  cxrecfled  Si 20.000,  wliile  small  contributions  had  been  sent  by 
tlie  German.  Austrian.  Hungarian,  Dutch,  and  Swiss  Committees. 
Xo  time  was  li-i  in  heginning  f)])erations.  By  1877  the  first  expe- 
djtiMH  was  vAvlvv  way.  tlie  r.bjcct  being  to  establish  between  the 
can  cast  anl  Lake  Tanganyika  a  scries  of  stations  for  the  pur- 
pose of  hc!])ing  expl(jrers  and   Sj^reading  civilization.      From   the 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION        63 

1877-1880 

beginning  misfortunes  followed  the  footsteps  of  this  and  subsequent 
expeditions.  The  Belgian  officers  chosen  as  leaders  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  the  conditions  of  life  in  tropical  Africa,  and 
were  apparently  almost  entirely  ignorant  of  the  geography  of  the 
continent,  even  so  far  as  it  was  known.  Into  the  details  of  these 
international  expeditions  from  the  east  coast  it  is  not  necessary  to 
enter.  The  first  which  left  Zanzibar  in  1878  set  out  with  a  train 
of  ox-wagons,  but  had  to  return  shortly  after  it  started,  owing  to 
the  death  of  the  oxen  from  the  sting  of  the  tsetse  fly,  which,  though 
usually  harmless  to  man,  is  poisonous  to  cattle.  One  or  two 
intermediate  stations  of  a  temporary  kind  were  subsequently  estab- 
lished in  the  interior,  but  the  first  permanent  one  was  founded  only 
in  1880  at  Karema,  on  the  southeast  shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
It  was  in  connection  with  this  station  that  experiments  were  made,  at 
the  expense  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  with  Indian  elephants.  All 
of  these,  unfortunately,  died,  probably  from  want  of  intelligent 
treatment;  the  question  as  to  the  possibility  of  acclimatizing  Indian 
elephants  in  Africa  has  yet  to  be  settled.  Notwithstanding  the  great 
sacrifice  of  human  life  and  the  enormous  expenditure  of  money, 
these  attempts  at  founding  oases  of  civilization  in  Central  Africa 
were  failures,  so  far  as  the  objects  of  the  association  were  con- 
cerned. Karema  was  really  the  only  station  that  survived,  and 
explorers  have  on  more  than  one  occasion  obtained  succor  there. 
Results  as  to  exploration  have  been  almost  nil,  and  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  regret  that  the  intentions  of  the  royal  founder  of  the  Asso- 
ciation were  so  sadly  marred  by  ignorance  and  inefficiency. 

The  truth  is  that,  so  far  as  the  exploration  of  Africa  goes, 
much  more  was  done  by  the  National  Committees  than  by  the 
International  Commission.  This  is  also  true  of  the  opening  up  of 
the  continent  to  commerce  and  civilization,  so  that  the  committees, 
rather  than  the  commission,  must  be  credited  with  having  brought 
about  that  scramble  among  the  European  powers  which,  in  a  very 
brief  period.,  resulted  in  the  partition  of  Africa.  To  the  work  of 
the  English  African  Committee,  independently  of  the  association, 
reference  has  already  been  made.  Their  work  was  purely  one  of 
exploration.  The  Erench  and  Italian  National  Committees  seem 
to  have  contributed  little  or  nothing  to  the  central  funds;  they,  too, 
were  of  opinion  tliat  they  could  best  carry  out  the  work  which 
the  King  of  the  Belgians  had  m  view  by  sending  out  expeditions  of 
their  own  to  those  parts  oi  Africa  in  which  they  were  most  inter- 


6i  AFRICA 

1878-1879 

cstctl — Italy  in  the  Ahvssiiiian  ami  Shoan  rcci^ions.  and  France  in 
the  regions  to  which  her  (laboon  colony  gave  access.  Fvcn  the 
Swiss  Coinniitlcc  reserved  a  portion  of  their  funds  for  specific 
Swiss  nntlertakint^s.  while  the  only  other  committee  that  seems  to 
have  tliMie  anv  real  work  was  that  of  Germany.  I'ut  the  associa- 
tion soon  ceased  to  i)c  really  international.  While  meai^er  sub- 
scriptions mav.  for  a  shi^'t  time.  ha\e  come  in  from  individuals 
ant!  societies,  the  International  African  .Association  was  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  wilh(jut  whose  ample 
private  means  it  wouKl  h.ave  collapsed  long  before  M.  Cambier 
reached  Karema.  To  the  work  of  the  leading  National  Commit- 
tees reference  will  again  be  made  further  on. 

Meantime  the  International  Association  entered  upon  an  en- 
tirclv  new  phase,  a  ])hase  which  made  it  even  more  Belgian  in 
character,  and  which  undoubtedly  did  much  to  prccii)itale  the  par- 
celing out  of  the  continent.  Stanley  landed  at  Marseilles  in  Janu- 
arv.  1878,  from  that  journey  across  the  Dark  Continent,  during 
w  hich  he  had  traced  its  greatest  river  down  to  the  sea.  h^ven  before 
he  had  emerged  from  Africa,  as  we  have  seen,  his  stirring  letters 
liad  roused  iuirope  to  action.  Contingent  after  contingent  of  mis- 
sionaries was  sent  out.  I'rotestant  and  Catholic,  and  stations  were 
being  established  not  onlv  in  l\ganda.  but  along  tlie  route  to  Tan- 
ganyika. On  'J'anganyika  itself  mission  stations  of  both  creeds 
were  planted.  One  result  of  Stanley's  great  cxj^edition  in  b^ast 
Africa  was  the  increase  of  ]^)ritish  mission  stations  an.d  the  spread 
of  British  inlluence  at  Zanzibar  and  in  the  interior,  where,  ex'cry 
traveler  toiilicd.  the  sultan  v^as  regarded  a-^  paramount. 

It  was.  hov.c\-cr.  on  the  other  side  of  the  continent  that  Stan- 
ley's journey  ])ro(luce(!  ih.e  most  immediate  results.  Xo  sooner, 
lie  tells  us.  had  he  ste])ped  out  of  th.e  train  at  Marseilles  than  lie 
was  accosted  by  commissioners  from  the  King  of  the  Belgian:-,  wlu) 
\'. as  naluraHy  inien>el_\'  interested  in  the  great  waterway  into  the 
hicart  of  the  coniiiient  which  Stanley  had  re\e;ded.  It  was  not.  how- 
e\er.  U!Uil  jiaie  that  the  explorer  was  able  to  visit  Keopold.  and 
Hi!  until  X')\f;nber  did  ihe  farth.er  extension  of  tlie  king's  great 
j)urpo-c  take  deliniie  shape.  On  the  25th  of  that  month  Stan- 
ley met  t'..e  k:iig  and  >e\eral  representati\x'  genilemen  of  \-arious 
t.  r.niries.  presumably  members  of  the  International  African  Asscj- 
(■:at;on.  A;  'ia-  <!c\-i>i\e  meeting  of  January  J,  \^J<),  tliere  were 
prc.-ent  rejire-ewiaiix  e^^  t,i  Belgium,  Holhuul,  Kngland,  J-'rance.  and 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION        65 

1879 

America;  at  this  meeting  the  final  plans  were  adopted  and  the 
necessary  sums  voted.  At  the  November  meeting  it  had  been 
resolved  that  a  fund  should  be  subscribed,  the  subscribers  to  the 
fund  forming  themselves  into  a  "  Comite  des  Etudes  du  Haiit 
Congo  " — a  Committee  for  the  Investigation  of  the  Upper  Congo. 
What  the  original  purpose  of  this  committee  was  may  be  learned 
from  Stanley's  own  brief  account  of  the  proceedings :  "  After  a 
few  minutes  it  transpired  that  the  object  of  the  meeting  was  to 
consider  the  best  way  of  promoting  the  vQ.Ty  modest  enterprise  of 
studying  what  might  be  made  of  the  Congo  River  and  its  basin. 
This  body  of  gentlemen  desired  to  know  how  much  of  the  Congo 
River  was  actually  navigable  by  light-draught  vessels?  What  pro- 
tection could  friendly  native  chiefs  give  to  commercial  enterprises? 
Were  the  tribes  along  the  Congo  sufficiently  intelligent  to  under- 
stand that  it  would  be  better  for  their  interests  to  maintain  a  friendly 
inercourse  with  the  whites  than  to  restrict  it  ?  What  tributes,  taxes, 
or  imposts,  if  any,  would  be  levied  by  the  native  chiefs  for  right- 
of-way  through  their  country?  What  was  the  character  of  the 
produce  which  the  natives  would  be  able  to  exchange  for  European 
fabrics?  Provided  that  in  future  a  railway  should  be  created  to 
Stanley  Pool  from  some  point  on  the  Lower  Congo,  to  what 
amount  could  this  produce  be  furnished  ?  Some  of  the  above  ques- 
tions were  answerable  even  then,  others  were  not.  It  was,  there- 
fore, resolved  that  a  fund  should  be  subscribed  to  equip  an  expedi- 
tion to  obtain  accurate  information,  the  subscribers  to  the  fund 
assuming  the  name  and  title  of  '  Comite  des  Etudes  du  Haut 
Congo.'  A  portion  of  the  capital,  amounting  to  $100,000,  was 
there  and  then  subscribed  for  immediate  use."  At  first  the  com- 
mittee was  certainly  regarded  as  a  special  committee  of  the  Inter- 
national African  Association,  whose  flag — a  wdiite  star  on  a  blue 
ground — it  adopted.  But  while  there  were  no  Englishmen  on  the 
International  Association,  two  well-known  P^nglishmen,  both  of 
them  connected  with  Africa,  formed  part  of  the  committee,  and 
we  believe,  subscriljed  to  it.  The  king  was  president  of  both,  and 
both  associations  had  tlie  same  secretary.  Colonel  Strauch.  It  is 
not  clear  tliat  tin's  special  committee,  possibly  net  even  the  royal 
president,  realized  wliat  tlicir  real  aims  were;  probably  the  com- 
mittee, as  a  wliole,  thouglit  soTucthing  good  was  sure  to  come  out 
of  an  expedition  of  wliic^h  Strniley  was  leader. 

It  ^^•as  pujjlicly  ;iniv)unced   that  the   Belgian   steamer  Barga, 


66  AFRICA 

1879-18S2 

cnrryinp:  three  undecked  steam-launches,  one  other  steamer,  three 
flat-bottom  boats,  a  number  of  £;alvanizcd-tin  houses,  and  a  great 
quantity  of  otlier  material,  was  really  intended  to  send  aid  up  the 
Cont^o  to  the  Rcls^ian  expeditions  from  the  east  coast.  Stanley 
liimsclf  went  first  to  Zanzibar,  and  his  connection  with  the  expedi- 
tion was  kept  a  secret  as  far  as  was  possible.  While  Stanley  was 
at  Zanzibar,  collecting  a  force  of  natives  there,  the  agents  of  a 
Dutch  house  on  the  l.ower  Congo  were  busy  collecting  Krooboys 
as  porters.  But  all  this  was  done  as  cpiietly  as  possible.  The  truth 
is.  annexation  was  in  the  air.  The  h'rench,  under  I^e  Brazza,  had 
already  l)cen  pushing  inward  from  the  Gaboon,  while  the  Portu- 
guese were  excited  by  Stanley's  great  discovery  to  advance 
claims  to  the  G^ngo.  founded  upon  what  they  maintained  was  old 
conquest  and  ])os>cssion.  Moreover,  that  the  aims  of  the  so-called 
International  Association  had  developed,  that  something  more  than 
the  mere  foundation  of  civilizing  and  exploring  stations  was  in- 
tended, seems  evident  horn  a  letter  written  to  Stanley  by  the 
secretary.  G^loncl  Strauch,  while  the  leader  of  the  novel  expedition 
was  yet  on  his  way  out  to  the  river.  The  cost  of  these  East  Central 
African  operations,  many  of  which  were  failures,  must  have  been 
enormous;  the  bulk  of  it  came  out  of  the  king's  own  pocket. 

Stanley  admits  that  from  the  outset  the  Congo  Committee 
had  separate  and  distinct  objects  in  view  from  the  International 
Association.  "  with  the  ultimate  intention  of  embarking  on  a  grander 
enterprise  if  tlie  reports  from  the  Congo  region  were  favorable." 
As  originally  constituted,  the  committee  included  several  mer- 
chants of  various  nationalities,  or  at  least  had  received  considerable 
subscrij)tions  from  various  mercantile  firms,  who  no  doubt  hoped 
to  profit  by  the  undertaking  which  Stanley  was  to  lead.  But 
even  before  Stanley  reached  the  Congo  it  was  resolved  by  the 
Committee  to  "return  evcrv  subscription  to  the  merchants  of  all 
nationalities  who  had  ])rcviously  expressed  bv  their  various  sub- 
scriptions their  sympathy  with  the  project."  Thus  the  new  Congo 
undertaking  was  gradually  becoming  an  almost  purely  Belgian 
enterpri>c.  There  remained  connected  with  it  only  those  who  man- 
aged tlie  .'l^tair^  of  the  International  African  Commission;  and 
later  on.  in  iSSj.  Stanley  tells  us.  the  committee,  "having 
sati-fie<I  it-elf  that  ])rMgre-s  and  stability  were  secured,  assumed  the 
title  of  '  .■ls.\-<i('i(il!ni!  J)itcrnalinualc  dii  Coiv^o,'  which,  be  it  remem- 
bered."   he    CMr;tinue-.    "u.a^    originallv  started    with    the    philan- 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION        67 

1879-1882 

thropic  motive  of  opening  up  the  Congo  basin,  and  of  exploring  and 
developing,  according  to  the  extent  of  its  means,  the  resources  of 
the  country  around  each  station  as  soon  as  it  was  founded."  We 
presume  that  the  "  grander  enterprise "  referred  to  above  went 
beyond  this  admirable  scheme — a  scheme  the  success  of  which 
would  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  leader  and  certainly,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  on  the  caliber  of  the  men  who  served  under 
him. 

That  the  king,  the  moving  spirit,  the  life  and  soul  of  all  this 
stupendous  enterprise,  whatever  may  have  been  his  original  mo- 
tives, had  by  this  time  something  more  in  view  than  the  mere  pro- 
motion of  geographical  knowledge  and  the  development  of  Africa's 
resources,  seems  evident;  it  may  be  that  Stanley's  discovery  of  the 
great  waterway  had  opened  up  to  Leopold  vistas  of  dominion  not 
dreamed  of  W'hen  he  called  the  Brussels  meeting  of  1876.  As  for 
the  Strauch  letter,  extracts  from  it  occur  in  Stanley's  reply,  in 
which  the  experienced  explorer,  in  mild  and  courtly  language,  in- 
formed the  colonel  that  he  did  not  know  what  he  was  writing  about. 
After  one  or  two  impracticable  suggestions,  the  colonel  writes :  "  It 
would  be  wise  to  extend  the  influence  of  the  stations  over  the  chiefs 
and  tribes  dwelling  near  them,  of  whom  a  republican  confederation 
of  free  negroes  might  be  formed,  such  confederation  to  be  inde- 
pendent, except  that  the  king,  to  whom  its  conception  and  formation 
w-as  due,  reserved  the  right  to  appoint  the  president,  who  should 
reside  in  Europe."  "  You  say,  also,"  Stanley  writes,  " '  that  a 
confederation  thus  formed  might  grant  concessions  (with  power 
to  make  good  what  they  granted)  to  societies  for  the  construction 
of  works  of  public  utility,  or  perhaps  might  be  able  to  raise  loans 
like  Liberia  and  Sarawak,  and  construct  their  own  public  works.'  " 
To  this  Stanley  replies  by  endeavoring  to  make  the  colonel  real- 
ize what  manner  of  people  really  occupied  the  Congo.  Only  abso- 
lute ignorance  of  Central  Africa  could  have  permitted  any  man 
of  intelligence  to  suggest  the  foundation  of  a  republic  like  Liberia. 
"  This  project,"  he  says  further  on,  "  is  not  to  create  a  Belgian 
colony,  but  to  establish  a  powerful  negro  state."  Had  Colonel 
Strauch  read  Stanley's  "  Through  the  Dark  Continent  "  with  atten- 
tion, surely  he  would  have  realized  the  complete  impractica- 
bility of  his  proposal.  But  this  is  only  a  sample  of  the  ignorance 
which,  it  is  to  be  feared,  still  prevails  in  many  quarters  as  to  the 
real  conditions  of  Central  Africa  and  the  true  character  of  its  inliab- 


68  A  r  RICA 

1877-1878 

itant-^.  At  the  same  titm*  it  indicates  that  the  kini>-.  if  not  tlie  Com- 
mittee, liaii  aims  of  hii;h  anihition;  that  he  cherished  the  liope  of 
foundint;:  a  irreat  African  state,  of  which  he  should  be  the  sovere-g'n, 
in  reahtv  if  not  in  name.  I'Vom  our  present  point  of  view  this 
enteri)rise  (>i  iS7<).  nndcr  Stanley's  leadership,  was  the  first  overt 
step  toward  the  h.uropean  partition  of  Africa  on  a  large  scale. 

**  On  the  iJtIi  (A  Au.L;ust.  1877.''  Stanley  writes,  "I  arrived 
at  HanaiKi  Point  after  crossinj^^  Africa,  and  descending  its  greatest 
river.  On  the  14th  of  August,  1879,  I  arrived  before  the  mouth 
(if  this  river  to  ascend  it.  with  the  novel  mission  of  sowing  along 
its  banks  civilized  settlements,  to  peacefully  concpier  and  sub- 
due it.  to  remold  it  in  liarmony  with  modern  ideas  into  national 
states,  within  whose  limits  the  European  merchant  shall  go  hand 
in  hand  with  tlie  dark  African  trader,  and  justice  and  law  and  order 
shall  prevail,  and  murder  and  lawlessness  and  the  cruel  barter  of 
slaves  shall  be  overcome." 

It  is  right  to  set  the  highest  aims  before  us;  the  higher  is  likely 
to  be  our  accomi)lisliment.  The  laudable  objects  which  the  King 
of  the  Ijclgians  and  his  loyal  lieutenant,  Stanley,  professed  to 
have  had  in  view  may,  we  believe  will,  in  time  be  accomplished, 
though  probably  after  a  fashion  different  from  that  which  they 
expected  and  Imped  for.  Xow  tliat  energetic  men  of  the  great  na- 
tions of  the  world,  and  powerful  and  wealthy  organizations  have 
taken  tlie  t;i.--k  in  hand,  now  that  dark  doings  can  no  longer  Ijc  con- 
cealed, we  may  be  sure  tliat  in  time  the  face  of  the  continent  will  be 
ciiangrd.  Ijui  let  us  remember  that  Africa  is  very  different  from 
Anierica  and  A.r,>tralia,  and  that  we  cannot  ho]^e  in  a  decade  to 
o\-ercMnie  t!;e  re-nl'.s  of  tliousands  of  years  of  savagery. 

Stanley  foiiiKJ  ilie  Hartj^a  waiting  for  him  at  Banana  Point, 
and  with'  ut  Is-;  of  time  tl:c  ascent  of  the  river  was  begim.  l-^vi- 
der.tiy  liis  stail  —  l-nglish.  American.  Danish,  Belgian.  bVcncli — 
were  ?.-.  ig!i' .r;n;t  wf  African  conditions  as  Colonel  Strauch  ;  they 
h.-id  exncc'ed  t.i  be  fni-nished  with  ;dl  the  luxuries  of  I'ritish  India, 
and  •.'!  !.(•  trc.-iti-'l  wit'i  the  deference  due  to  im])erial  officers.  It  is 
to  be  leai'e'l  \]]:'A  t'/o  many  of  the  Congo  oflicials  have  gone  out 
witii  e  j;;;i.!y  ir.xr.i  .■  .l^-^  idea.->.  few  of  them  certainly  prepared  to 
unde;;4  .  t::e  hard  '':])>  ;d).^oliUe]y  rcipn'red  if  they  wished  to  pro- 
m  te  t'.;L-:r  ni.-i-'c;  -  dt  -:.l;;i.  .'^nch  men  as  Strndey  himself,  as  Ivliodes 
an.d  J;:;ne-  M.  a,  I  .'j';-;i;-d  and  jo]instr)n,  arc  rare;  but  it  was  only 
w:l;i  the  a  — i-ia:r  v  '^i  men  >i\  t':eir  caliber  that  the  development  of 


PRELIMINARIES     TO     PARTITION        69 

1878-1883 

the  Congo  along  the  lines  laid  clown  by  the  king  could  be  accom- 
plished. Stanley,  with  his  usual  success  in  managing  men,  soothed 
the  ruffled  tempers  of  his  staff,  and  after  a  few  days'  delay  pro- 
ceeded up  the  river  to  Boma,  where,  as  at  Banana,  he  found  the 
factories  of  English,  French,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese  firms,  who 
had  been  carrying  on  trade  on  the  Lower  Congo  for  over  a  century. 
Vivi,  the  limit  of  navigation  on  the  lower  river,  was  reached  on 
September  26,  and  preparations  were  at  once  made  to  establish  the 
first  station  of  the  Congo  Committee  here;  by  January  24,  1880,  it 
was  finished,  and  Stanley  was  free  to  proceed  up  the  river  to 
select  sites  for  other  stations.  Leopoldville  had  been  founded  on 
Stanley  Pool,  treaties  concluded  w^ith  native  chiefs,  explorations 
of  the  southern  tributaries  made  and  other  work  done,  when  Stan- 
ley returned  to  Europe  to  make  the  position  clear  to  the  com- 
mittee, and  urge  the  construction  of  a  railroad  from  the  lower  river 
past  the  cataracts  to  the  Pool. 

By  this  time  the  "  Coniite  des  Etudes  "  had  developed  into  the 
committee  of  the  "  Association  Internationale  du  Congo/'  Before 
Stanley  had  been  long  with  the  committee  he  had  convinced 
them  not  only  that  a  railroad  was  absolutely  necessary,  but  that  the 
final  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  so-called  International  Association 
must  be  taken  if  success  were  to  attend  the  king's  enterprise  on  the 
Congo.  Many  treaties  had  been  made  with  native  chiefs,  and  many 
more  would  be  made  on  his  return.  But  it  was  now  time  that  the 
powers  of  Europe  should  be  asked  to  acknowledge  the  work  as  valid 
and  to  recognize  the  association  not  simply  as  a  civilizing  and 
exploring  company,  but  as  a  governing  body.  In  short,  it  was  seen 
that  the  time  had  come  for  constituting  the  Congo  territory  into  a 
state  with  recognized  status,  of  which  the  committee  should  be  the 
governors  and  tlieir  royal  president  the  sovereign.  Stanley,  whose 
health  was  shattered,  had  returned  to  Europe  vv'ith  the  intention 
of  staying,  but  he  was  persuaded  to  go  back  to  the  Congo  and 
complete  the  work  of  organization. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  tell  the  story  of  Stanley's  many 
troubles — troubles  mainly  due  to  inefiicient  and  discontented  subor- 
dinates. Nor  need  we  describe  in  detail  the  \'ast  work  he  accom- 
plished while  on  the  Congo  as  its  first  organizer  and  administrator. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that,  within  a  year  after  his  second  arrival  at  Vivi, 
he  had  established  a  series  of  stations  along  the  river  as  far  up  as 
Stanley  I'"alls   (December,    1883)  ;  had  made  hundreds  of  treaties 


70  AFRICA 

1883 

with  chiefs  from  Banana  to  the  Falls;  had  been  saddened  with  the 
siplit  oi  (icvastatimi  over  thousands  of  miles  on  the  upper  river  by 
tlic  Xvauijuc  Arabs,  who  luui  followed  in  his  footsteps  down  the 
river:  had  been  able  to  welcome  and  instruct  his  successor,  Sir 
I'rancis  de  W'inton;  and  had  shown  by  advice  and  example  how  the 
work  oi  Dri^anization  and  development  ought  to  be  carried  on — all 
this.  \)e  it  remembered,  in  five  years  after  first  setting  foot  in  Vivi. 
Never  was  a  stale  founded  in  so  brief  a  period.  But  meanwhile 
other  events  were  taking  place,  other  African  enterprises  were  rap- 
idly developing,  which,  as  if  by  magic,  suddenly  roused  the  con- 
tinent from  its  lethargy  of  ages. 


Chapter  VIII 

ENGLAND,   FRANCE,   AND   PORTUGAL   IN   AFRICA 

1875-1884 

WHILE  Stanley  was  pushing  his  way  up  the  Congo 
and  beginning  the  work  which  issued  in  the  founding 
of  the  Free  State,  events  were  taking  place  which  threat- 
ened at  one  time  to  checkmate  him,  and  render  abortive  the  aims  of 
the  King  of  the  Belgians.  In  the  years  1875- 1878  Count  Pierre 
Savergnan  de  Brazza  ^  carried  out  a  successful  exploration  of  the 
Ogove  River  to  the  south  of  Gaboon,  in  the  hope  that  it  would  turn 
out  to  be  a  great  waterway  into  the  interior.  This  hope  was  disap- 
pointed, for  after  a  certain  distance  the  stream  became  broken  by 
cataracts,  and  rapidly  declined  in  volume.  De  Brazza  crossed  over 
the  hills  at  the  head  of  the  Ogove  and  soon  found  that  these  formed 
the  water-parting  between  that  river  and  another  which  flowed  in 
an  easterly  direction.  This  he  found  to  be  the  Alima,  and  when  he 
reached  it  Stanley  had  just  arrived  in  Europe  from  his  momentous 
voyage  down  the  Congo.  Had  De  Brazza  followed  the  Alima  he 
would  also  have  found  himself  on  the  great  river,  far  above  its 
cataracts,  and  would  almost  surely  have  been  tempted  to  see 
whither  the  magnificent  waterway  led.  But  at  the  time  he  had  not 
heard  of  Stanley's  great  discovery,  and  as  his  health  was  shattered 
and  his  means  exhausted  he  returned  to  Europe. 

Like  Stanley,  De  Brazza  did  not  rest  long  in  Europe.  Stanley 
had  almost  a  year's  start  of  his  French  rival;  the  former  left  Europe 
in  January,  1879,  the  latter  in  December  of  the  same  year.  De 
Brazza  by  this  time  knew  that  the  Alima  and  the  Licona,  which  he 
also  touched  on  his  previous  journey,  must  enter  the  Congo.  As 
the  agent  then  of  the  French  Committee  of  the  International  Afri- 
can Association,  and  with  funds  provided  by  them,  he  went  out  to 
the  Ogove  to  found  stations.  Indeed,  it  was  announced  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Paris  Geographical  Society  before  De  Brazza  started 

^  De  Brazza  was  Italian  by  birth  and  parentage,  and  was  born  in  1852.     He 
received  his  education  in  France,  and  entered  the  French  naval  service  in  1870. 

71 


7J2  A  r  RICA 

1879-1880 

tluit  his  object  was  to  explore  tlic  rcsii^ion  between  the  Gaboon  and 
Lake  Chad:  thoiijjrh  tliero  can  l)o  Httlc  doubt  that  his  aim  from  the 
first  was  to  reach  the  C'ons^o.  That  he  lost  no  time  in  carryinpf  it  out 
is  evident  from  the  fact  tliat  on  Xovcmbcr  7.  1880,  on  his  way- 
down  the  river,  he  came  n|ioii  Stanley  pushir.j:::  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Stank'v  at  the  time  knew  little  about  De  P>raz/.a.  The  latter 
hat!  founded  an  *'  international  "  station  on  the  Ogove,  and  rapidly 
crossinc:  over  to  the  Lelini  (the  Luvn  of  Stanley),  found  no  difii- 
cultv  in  followiui::  that  river  down  to  the  Congo.  lie  seems  to  have 
been  able  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the  chiefs  and  people 
;iround.  and  succeeded  in  discovering  one  chief  who,  according  to 
He  r.ra//a"s  own  report,  claimed  to  be  suzerain  of  all  the  country 
around.  c\cn  to  tlie  south  bank  of  the  Congo.  Thereupon,  on 
Octol'cr  I.  iSSo.  the  representative  of  the  International  Association 
m.idc  a  s  ilemn  treaty  with  the  chief,  whereby  the  latter  placed  him- 
>clf  uinler  the  protection  of  France,  and  accepted  the  French  ilag. 
1  )o  r.raz/a  lost  no  time  in  crossing  over  to  the  south  side  of  Stanley 
r^'o],  auil  there  founded  a  station,  near  where  Leopoldville  now 
stands,  and  which  his  admirers  in  l^^rance  named  after  him  Brazza- 
ville.    The  station  f  n  the  Ogove  lie  himself  named  Franceville. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  De  Brazza  had  cast  aside  all  pre- 
tense of  carrving  (Uit  the  designs  of  the  International  Association; 
lie  was  simplv  vr.c  emissary  of  France,  doing  his  utmost  to  steal  a 
marcli  on  Stanley,  and  secure  the  mastery  of  this  magnificent 
trad.c-route  into  Africa  fr;r  his  adopted  country.  During  his  two 
d.ays'  sojourn  v.ith  Stanley  near  Xdombi  Mbongo.  De  Brazza 
>c-cms  to  l]a\-e  said  not  a  word  about  the  annexatirins  he  had  at- 
tempted to  make  on  belialf  of  France.  It  was  only  when  Stan- 
Icy  reached  Stanley  Pool,  and  met  the  Sengalese  sergeant  whom 
De  Brazza  had  left  behiu'I  as  the  representative  of  PVance,  that  he 
learned  v.liat  h.ad  been  done.  It  is  easv  to  imagine  the  vexation 
of  i'.:c  d:.sco\crcr  of  ti.e  ("wugo  and  tlie  agent  of  the  King  of  tlie 
I'dcrians  at  his  being  outwitted  in  this  fashion.  But  that  did  not 
jire-.cnt  ;::m  i:':n  jir' ";(;c(ling  at  r  nee  to  found  Leopoldville  almost 
;'.l'  iig^idc  01  !;ra/za\-i!!e.  Moroxcr,  h,e  (liscox'ered  on  making  in- 
qu;r;ci  t!:at  I'.e  chief  with  wliom  J  )e  Ih'azza  treated  had  no  suze- 
rainty exi-e;;:  :ii  liis  f,\\n  tribe,  and  certainlv  not  on  the  S'juth  side  of 
the  ri\cr.  In  a  few  monih>,  indeed,  tlie  h'renrh  station  was  removed 
t  '  the  '  j  :,'-::(•  .;:d('  ;'  i1m:  !'. -r,].  the  <nu[]]  side  being  left  entirely  to 
.^tanh-"/  ;ind  the  InkTuational  .X.^-^ociation. 


1880-1882 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL 


73 


Meantime  De  Brazza  made  his  way  down  the  river  and  back 
to  the  Gaboon,  where  he  expected  to  find  a  staff  for  the  stations 
he  had  founded.  But  no  such  support  was  forthcoming;  so  that, 
exhausted  as  he  was,  De  Brazza  had  once  more  to  start  for  the 
interior,  with  meclianics,  gardeners,  and  other  equipment  for  his 
stations.  Roads  were  made  in  other  directions  to  the  Ahma,  on 
which  a  station  was  estabhshed,  and  down  which  it  was  intended  to 
take  the  expected  steamer.  After  seeing  everything  in  order,  De 
Brazza  started  for  the  coast  in  the  beginning  of  1882,  and  partly 


THK  CONGO  REGJOK  . 


explored  the  Kwilu-Xiari  River,  on  which  meanwhile  Stanley 
was  purposing-  to  establish  a  series  of  stations.  This  river,  it  was 
thought,  would  furnish  an  easy  and  rapid  access  to  Stanley  Pool, 
a  short  line  of  railroad  sufficing  to  connect  the  two,  and  so  the  long 
series  of  cataracts  would  be  overcome.  De  Brazza  followed  the 
river  for  some  distance,  when  he  had  to  return  directly  to  the  coast 
owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  natives.  He  reached  Paris  in  June, 
1882,  about  three  months  before  vStanley. 

So  far  as  France  was  concerned,  it  was  evident  that  by  this 
time  the  international  features  of  the  enterprise,  initiated  by  the 
King  of  the  Belgians,  were  entirely  abandoned;  and  so  it  was  in 


7-1  AFRICA 

1876-1883 

t!ic  case  of  all  the  nationalities  which  took  any  active  part  in  the 
work.  Imlced.  the  international  character  of  the  association  can 
hardly  l)C  said  to  have  existed  beyond  the  first  Brussels  meeting;  it 
rapidly  dcj^cnerated  into  a  national  scramble.  Clearly  the  achieve- 
ments of  Stanley  and  De  Brazza  on  the  Congo  were  bringing 
African  atTairs  to  a  crisis  and  intensifying  the  political  character 
t)f  the  expeditions  which  were  now  entering  the  continent  on  all 
sides. 

While  Stanley  was  pushing  toward  the  upper  river,  making 
treaties  and  fminding  stations,  and  De  Brazza  and  his  companions 
were  moving  ab<nit  along  the  right  bank,  endeavoring  to  turn  Stan- 
ley's Hank,  another  power  had  entered  the  Congo  field  and  threat- 
ened to  paralyze  the  efforts  both  of  France  and  of  the  King  of  the 
Belgians.  Portugal  had  at  last  been  aroused  from  her  long  lethargy. 
She  had  sat  for  centuries  within  hail  of  this  great  river  and  had 
never  manifested  any  curiosity  to  discover  whence  it  came  or  to 
what  uses  it  might  be  put.  It  was  only  when  more  energetic 
ixnvers  began  to  do  the  work  she  ought  to  have  done  long  before 
that  slie  interfered. 

It  was  the  tlittings  hither  and  thither  of  De  Brazza,  and  his 
indiscriminate  distribution  of  tri-colors,  that  rearoused  the  ap- 
l)rehensi()ns  of  Portugal — rearoused  because  the  claim  she  insisted 
on  bringing  to  the  attention  of  the  British  Government  in  1882  had 
been  the  subject  of  correspondence  and  negotiation  since  the  begin- 
ning of  tlie  century.  A  Blue  Book,  published  in  1883,  covering 
ninety  pages,  is  entirely  occupied  with  correspondence  concerning 
the  claim  of  Portugal  to  the  West  African  coast  between  5°  12' 
and  8^  south  latitude.  In  all  this  long  corresj)ondence.  extending 
down  to  1877.  Portugal  never  let  an  opportunity  pass  of  claiming 
sovereignty  over  the  region  in  question.  British  vessels  were  con- 
stantly hovering  ab()Ut  these  coasts  on  the  watch  for  slavers,  and 
Portugal  Constantly  protested  against  their  presence.  It  even 
seemed  at  one  time  as  if  Great  Britain  would  take  possession  of 
jjart  of  thi>  coast,  a  procedure  which,  according  to  the  voluminous 
correspondence  on  the  subject,  the  native  chiefs  would  have  wel- 
comed, i'cjrtugal  was  particularly  jealous  of  any  attempt  to  dis- 
pute her  right  to  the  territories  of  Molemba  and  Cabinda,  lying 
immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Congo  mouth — territories  which 
figured  am<^ng  the  titles  of  the  Portuguese  monarch,  and  which  she 
maintained  had  been   in  her  possession  since   1484;  but   England 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL         75 

1856-1882 

never  once  admitted  Portugal's  claim  to  this  stretch  of  coast.  Her 
Angola  territories  were  held  to  end  on  the  north  at  Ambriz,  well 
south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Congo ;  no  effective  possession  could  be 
proved  anywhere  to  the  north  of  this. 

After  1877  there  seems  to  have  been  a  lull  in  the  reiteration 
of  these  claims.  About  that  time  there  had  been  some  inhuman 
cruelties  perpetrated  by  traders  upon  the  unfortunate  natives  around 
the  factories  on  the  lower  river — cruelties  which  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  investigation  on  the  part  of  the  British  Government.  Por- 
tugal, as  her  statesmen  assured  the  British  representative  at  Lisbon, 
was  filled  with  horror  and  indignation  at  these  cruelties,  and  begged 
that  her  right  to  the  Lower  Congo,  and  the  coast  north  and  south, 
might  be  recognized,  in  order  that  she  might  feel  herself  empowered 
to  establish  and  maintain  good  government.  But  British  states- 
men at  the  time  were  obdurate,  and  the  matter  seems  to  have  re- 
mained in  abeyance  until  1882,  when  De  Brazza's  activity  convinced 
the  Portuguese  Government  that  one  more  desperate  effort  must 
be  made  to  obtain  a  hold  over  a  coast-line  whose  value  had  been 
greatly  enhanced  by  Stanley's  discovery.  Orders  had  been  issued 
to  Her  Majesty's  cruisers  in  1856  to  prevent  by  force  any  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Portuguese  authorities  "  to  extend  the  dominion 
of  Portugal  north  of  Ambriz,"  and  in  1876  the  late  Lord  Derby 
reminded  the  Duke  of  Saldanha  that  these  orders  were  still  in  force. 
They  continued  in  force  down  to  1882,  when,  in  a  long  communi- 
cation, dated  November  8,  of  that  year,  the  Portuguese  Government 
approached  Earl  Granville,  the  Foreign  Minister  of  that  time,  with 
a  renewal  of  Portugal's  claim  to  the  coast  between  5°  12'  and  8° 
south  latitude. 

Lord  Granville,  unlike  his  predecessor,  expressed  without  hesi- 
tation the  willingness  of  Pier  IMajesty's  Government,  not  to  consider 
the  historic  claims  of  Portugal  over  this  coast,  but  to  endeavor  to 
come  to  some  arrangement  for  mutual  advantage  to  the  African 
interests  of  both  countries.  It  was  pointed  out,  on  behalf  of  Portu- 
gal, how  desirable  it  would  be  for  a  power  so  well  known  to  have 
the  interests  of  civilization  at  heart,  to  have  jurisdiction,  not  only 
over  the  coast-line  in  question,  but  for  an  indefinite  distance  up  the 
Congo.  She  would  give  pledges  that  only  the  most  moderate  tariffs 
would  be  imposed ;  that  traders  of  all  nations  would  have  equal 
privileges  with  those  of  Portugal ;  that  the  navigation  of  the  river 
would  be  absolutely  free  to  all  flags;  and  that  every  means  would 


7G  A  F  RICA 

1882-1884 

l)r  taken  to  suppress  sl.ncn-  in  every  form.  Lord  Granville,  with 
all  his  pliant  urhanity  and  his  app.'ucnt  indifference  to  the  extension 
of  the  eni|)ire.  was  astute  cnoui^h  to  dcniht  the  zeal  of  Portugal  for 
tlie  suppression  of  slavery,  anil  to  demand  suhstantial  concessions 
on  hchalf  of  tlie  interests  of  British  trade  and  British  missions.  He 
saw  insuperahle  ohjecticns  to  permitting  Portugrd  to  claim  the  right 
of  intletinite  extension  in  the  interior,  for  she  more  than  hinted  at 
her  ambition  to  unite  her  East  and  West  African  colonies.  More 
stringent  stijiuIatiDns  as  to  tariffs  were  demanded;  a  definite  limit 
to  rortugaKs  claim  to  the  Congo;  respect  for  the  interests  of  the 
Congo  Association,  and  for  the  treaties  which  Britain  had  made 
with  the  chiefs  on  tlie  coast.  On  the  other  side  of  Africa  the  free 
navigation  of  the  Zambezi  was  insisted  upi^i ;  the  limit  of  the  claims 
of  IVirtugal  on  the  Shire  was  to  be  drawn  at  the  Ruo;  the  claims  of 
I'ortugal  in  the  interior  were  to  be  recognized  only  as  far  as  she 
l;;'.d  effectively  occupied  stations.  After  much  interchange  of  let- 
ters and  draft  treaties,  a  "Congo  Treaty"  was  at  last  agreed 
upou.  and  signed  on  I-'ebruary  26.  1884.  by  which  Great  Britain 
acknowledged  the  claim  of  Portugal  to  the  line  of  coast  in  (piestion, 
wiili  an  interior  limit  at  Xokki,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Congo, 
bel.  w  \'ivi.  Other  stipulations  with  reference  to  the  Congo  and 
Zambezi  were  agreed  to.  similar  in  character  to  those  already  men- 
tioned. In  tlie  original  draft  Lord  Granville  proposed  that  the 
na\igatirin  of  the  Congo  sliould  be  under  an  International  Commis- 
si' n.  but  owing  to  tlie  resistance  of  Portugal  this  was  finally  changed 
t.)  an  Ang]o-Portuguc-c  Commission. 

It  must  be  stated  in  excuse  for  Lord  Granville's  apparently 
ready  a.-scnt  to  an  arrangement  which  seemed  to  make  over  the 
C'  iigo  to  I'ortugal — and  tlie  statement  is  made  on  very  high  author- 
ity— tliat  lie  was  under  the  impression  that  the  King  of  the  Bel- 
gians, after  <irganizing  a.n  administration  on  tb.e  Congo,  intended 
to  make  o\cr  ;i!!  iiis  claims  to  luigland,  which  would  thus  have  com- 
ma:i'I  ■ '{  t'.e  v.r.de  river  above  its  mouth.  On  the  same  authority, 
there  is  rea>"n  to  belie\-c  tluit  Stanley  himself  was  under  this 
i!ii])re^~:'  !i  dnring  all  tlie  time  he  w.as  pusiiing  the  interests  of  the 
k:ng  on  t;;e  r:\er.  Wlicther  it  was  that  the  king  had  been  misunder- 
st'..  K,l.  (;r  that  in  t'le  end  i.c  cli.anged  his  mind — tor  his  scheme  seems 
to  lia\e  developed  in  magnitude  in  sjjite  of  himself — we  know  that 
l.e  stuck  to  i.;s  rr.cr.  At  al!  events,  it  is  only  right  to  refer  to  these 
conditions  :n  ju-tice  to  Lord  (jranville,  on  whose  motives  and  action 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL         77 

1883-1884 

as  Foreign  Minister  it  has  been  the  fashion  to  place  the  worst  con- 
struction. 

During  the  progress  of  the  negotiations  in  1883,  Portugal, 
feeling  uneasy  as  to  what  might  be  the  attitude  of  other  powers, 
especially  of  France,  approached  the  government  of  the  republic 
with  a  view  to  inducing  it  to  recognize  her  claims  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  British  Government  proposed  to  do ;  but  as  France  would 
not  commit  herself  as  to  the  mxouth  of  the  Congo,  the  negotiations 
were  allowed  to  drop.  Lord  Granville,  in  a  communication  of 
January  7,  1884,  declared  that  he  abandoned  the  mixed  commission 
with  the  greatest  reluctance.  Had  that  been  allowed  to  stand  there 
might  have  been  but  little  opposition  to  the  treaty  on  the  part  of 
other  powers,  and  certainly  the  difficulties  which  followed  with 
Portugal  in  the  Zambezi  region  and  Nyasaland  would  have  been 
avoided.  As  it  was,  what  with  Great  Britain's  and  Portugal's  abso- 
lute control  over  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  and  France's  designs  on 
the  Niari-Kwilu,  the  Congo  Association,  which  was  soon  to  become 
the  Congo  Free  State,  would  be  barred  all  access  to  the  state  except 
through  foreign  territory.  Lord  Granville  himself  expressed  doubts 
as  to  whether  the  other  powers  would  permit  the  treaty  to  stand ; 
and  his  doubts  were  soon  confirmed. 

There  was  a  universal  protest  from  all  the  powers  of  Europe, 
which  was  joined  in  by  the  English  press,  against  allowing  a  power 
like  Portugal,  which  had  been  in  Africa  for  four  centuries  and  had 
done  nothing  for  its  development,  to  have  the  virtual  command  of 
one  of  the  finest  rivers  on  the  continent.  Prince  Bismarck  appealed 
with  success  to  France  to  join  Germany  in  endeavoring  to  attain  a 
solution  of  the  difficulty,  entering  a  protest  at  the  same  time  at 
Lisbon  and  at  London.  The  proposal  for  an  Liternational  Confer- 
ence came,  however,  in  the  first  instance  from  Portugal,  who  could 
hardly  expect  to  gain  much  by  it.  ^Meantime,  even  when  the  con- 
ference was  sitting  in  Berlin,  she  took  possession  of  certain  points 
to  the  north  of  the  Congo,  and  stationed  a  squadron  on  the  Congo 
itself.  Lord  Granville  endeavored  to  compromise  matters  by  ]iro- 
posing  to  revert  to  the  idea  of  an  Liternational  Commission;  but 
on  June  26,  1884,  he  was  compelled,  under  i)ressure  of  public  opin- 
i(m,  to  announce  that  he  had  abandoned  the  Congo  Treaty.  An 
Liternational  Conference  becnne  inc\  ilal)le,  and  the  programme 
was  virtually  arranged  Ijctwcen  Germany  and  France — a  pro- 
gramme accepted  by  iuigland.  and  having  in  view,  among  other 


78  AFRICA 

1884-1885 

thing^s,  the  foumlaticMi  of  a  I'rcc  State  on  tlie  Congfo,  without 
absohitcly  fixiiij::  its  Hmits.  The  otlier  powers  soon  declared 
their  adhesion,  and  the  BerHn  Conference  of  1884-1885  was 
agree<l  to. 

Prince  Bismarck's  estimate  of  Portugal  as  a  colonial  power 
was  dcarlv  ox|)rcssc(l  in  a  communication  through  Count  Miinster 
to  Earl  Granville  with  reference  to  the  conference,  dated  June  7, 
1S84: 

"  We  are  not  in  a  position  to  admit  that  the  Portuguese  or 
any  other  nation  have  a  previous  riglit  there  (on  the  Congo).  We 
share  the  fear  which,  as  Lord  Granville  admits,  has  been  expressed 
hv  merchants  of  all  nations,  that  the  action  of  Portuguese  officials 
would  be  prejudicial  to  trade,  and  .  .  .  we  cannot  take  part 
in  any  scheme  for  handing  over  the  administration,  or  even  the 
direction,  of  these  arrangements  to  Portuguese  officials.  Even  the 
provision  for  limiting  the  dues  to  a  maximum  of  ten  per  cent. — the 
basis  of  the  Mozambique  tariff — would  not  be  a  sufficient  protection 
against  tlie  disadvantages  which  the  commercial  world  rightly  an- 
ticipates would  ensue  from  an  extension  of  the  Portuguese  colonial 
system  over  territories  which  have  hitherto  been  free." 

Meantime,  let  us  see  the  vantage-ground  which  was  being  taken 
up  by  the  powers  elsewhere  before  the  final  scramble  began.  The 
struggle  for  the  great  region  watered  by  the  Xiger  will  be  treated 
at  length  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Here  it  may  be  useful  to  indicate 
the  position  just  before  tlie  meeting  of  the  Berlin  Conference. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  how  much  l-^ngland  did  for  the 
exploration  of  the  Xiger  and  the  development  of  its  trade.  In  time 
traders  of  other  nationalities,  chiefly  Erench  and  German,  were 
attracted  to  the  river,  while  among  the  English  firms  there  was  no 
unity,  each  house  trying  to  outbid  the  other  for  native  products. 
Tliis  fierce  competition  was  in  the  end  detrimental  to  the  interests 
oi  all  conccrnerl.  At  length  this  became  so  c\idcnt  that  several 
ftf  the  more  important  English  houses  were  induced  to  form  them- 
selves into  a  United  African  Company,  which  in  a  short  time  was 
able  to  command  most  of  the  markets  and  to  regulate  the  prices  of 
native  conimoditic-s.  But  still  there  was  trouble  on  the  Niger  and 
caii-^c  r.r  nincli  anxiety  as  to  the  fate  of  Piritish  interests.  The 
F>nt:>h  r'f,nij)any  nnlurallv  cnrlcavorcd  to  strengthen  its  hold  and 
extend  its  operation^  dn  the  ri\er,  among  other  means  l)y  making 
treaties  with  the  chiefs  on  its  banks.     It  was  only  natural  that  the 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL         79 

1880-1884 

French  should  not  look  upon  these  operations  on  the  part  of  the 
British  with  complacency.  They  had  been  steadily  moving  on  to 
the  Upper  Niger;  and  in  1880-1881  Colonel  Gallieni  advanced  as 
far  as  Sego,  where  he  succeeded  in  planting  the  French  flag.  The 
ultimate  goal  of  the  French  was  Timbuktu,  and  their  aim  was  to 
tap  the  Niger  trade  by  connecting  the  upper  river  with  the 
navigable  part  of  the  Senegal  by  means  of  a  railroad. 

Meantime,  France  was  doing  her  utmost  elsewhere  to  make 
this  section  of  West  Africa  untenable  for  the  British,  The  Gambia 
colony  was  closed  in  until  it  was  almost  confined  to  the  river.  Sierra 
Leone  was  shut  out  from  the  "  Hinterland,"  and  latterly  some 
attempts  have  been  made  to  ruin  the  Gold  Coast  colonies  and  Lagos, 
with  but  partial  success.  Even  so  late  as  1884  there  were  two 
French  houses  on  the  Niger  besides  a  number  of  small  English 
houses.  But  the  United  African  Company,  by  throwing  its 
shares  open  to  the  public,  greatly  increased  its  capital  and 
swept  the  French  houses  entirely  out  of  the  river.  The  company 
succeeded  in  1884  in  getting  the  treaties  it  had  made  with  all  the 
chiefs  from  the  mouth  of  the  Niger  to  the  Benue  recognized  by  the 
British  Government,  and  a  protectorate  proclaimed  over  that  part 
of  the  river,  though  the  upper  course  was  still  left  insecure.  The 
French,  on  the  one  side,  were  casting  longing  eyes  from  the  vantage- 
ground  they  had  gained  on  the  Upper  Niger,  while  the  Germans 
had  not  abandoned  the  hope  of  securing  a  footing  outside  the  Brit- 
ish protectorate.  It  was  inevitable  that  this  fine  waterway  should 
come  under  the  cognizance  of  any  African  conference,  though  the 
actual  crisis  did  not  occur  till  after  the  Berlin  meeting.  When  the 
Berlin  Conference  met,  the  company  had  virtually  no  rivals  on 
the  lower  river,  except  the  merchants  who  maintained  houses 
on  the  coast  and  the  so-called  Oil  Rivers.  These  remained  aloof 
from  the  United  Company, 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  said  that  German  traders  also, 
chiefly  Hamburg  houses,  had  their  stations  on  the  coast;  their  trade 
was  largely  in  cheap  spirits,  with  which  they  flooded  the  country. 
At  the  Berlin  Conference  they  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on 
the  attitude  of  Bismarck,  and  afforded  the  prince  some  excuse  for 
the  annexations  upon  which  he  entered  in  1884. 

Two  notable  events  in  connection  with  French  extension  took 
place  in  188 1.  France  had  long  dreamed  of  establisliing  a  route 
from  her  Senegambian  provinces  to  her  Mediterranean  possession, 


80  AFRICA 

1881-1883 

Altrcria.  If  she  could  succord  in  cdiistructinq:  a  railroad  across  the 
Sahara,  it  would,  in  her  estimation,  draw  down  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean the  whole  of  the  trade  of  the  Central  Sudan,  and  so  greatly 
disc«nint  the  \ahie  i^\  the  Xii^er  as  a  trade-route.  In  order  to  inves- 
ti^rate  the  i)ractical)ility  of  a  railri>ad.  Colonel  Flatters  was  sent  out 
from  Al.coria  in  iNSi  to  survey  a  route;  hut  he  had  not  g^onc  far 
into  the  deport  hefore  he  and  his  ])arly  were  attacked  and  massa- 
cred hv  the  lk>:ve  .iutl  indoiK'ndent  Tuarej:^s.  This  unfortunate  dis- 
aster i^ave  the  death  hlow  for  the  time  to  all  Trans-Saharan  railroad 
schemes.  In  tr.e  same  year  that  the  Flatters  expedition  came  to  so 
untimelv  an  end  l^-ance  obtained  some  compensation  in  [he  annex- 
ation of  Tunis.  (Ui  which  she  had  long^  cast  covetous  eyes.  France 
had  made  up  her  mind  thnt  Tunis  was  necessary  for  her  expansion 
in  Xorth  Africa,  and  she  took  it.  with  the  tacit  consent  of  the  other 
European  powers,  whose  approval  she  considered  it  advisable  to 
c>htain.  and  w  itli  no  scruples  as  to  the  "  integrity  "  of  the  Turkish 
empire,  wiiicli  in  1894  she  professed  herself  so  anxious  to  maintain. 
In  tiiis  way  at  one  su-Qop  s!ie  added  45.000  sfjuare  miles  to  her 
African  enii)ire.  Italy,  which  had  also  developed  colonial  aspira- 
ti'  ns.  would  have  treated  Tripoli  as  France  did  Tunis,  but  the 
powers  disaj)provcd.  and  she  had  to  be  content  with  a  small  begin- 
ning at  the  l>ay  of  Assab,  on  the  Red  Sea  coast.  opj)(jsite  Aden. 
This  she  tot<k  (jver  in  1880  from  a  private  sliipping  firm  that  had 
had  a  station  tliere  since  1865  ;  in  this  way  she  became  a  near  neigh- 
bor to  the  h'rench  territory  at  Obock.  Th.e  latter  was  not  actually 
occupied  till  18S3,  tliough  it  had  been  nominally  a  French  posses- 
sion since  1862;  it  forms  a  fairly  convenient  coaling-station, 
and  the  hVcnch  hope  that  it  may  be  a  door  to  Abyssinia  and 
Siioa. 

PiCtwccn  1875  and  1884  Great  Britain  had  practically  the  whole 
of  Sniuli  nnfl  h'ast  Africa  before  her;  hut  she  did  not  realize  the 
value  of  lier  ojjportunities.  Responsible  gfjvernment  had  been 
granted  ti  the  ("ape  in  1872,  but  lier  statesmen  were  somewhat 
tinrid:  .-.n<!  C'.cn  ir,o;c  timid  were  the  statesmen  of  tlic  mother  coim- 
try.  v.iio  (!i(l  not  r^Tcaily  encourage  advances  toward  the  north. 
Si;!!,  ('.nrini:  ilie  ycirs  in  question,  S(jme  ])rogrc?s  was  made.  Gri- 
qualand  \\'e~t.  to  i;  c  norll;  of  the  Upper  Orange  River,  which  had 
exi-ted  as  a  -cpar.-itc  T;;-o\i:!cc  -ince  1871.  was  annexed  to  the  Caj)e 
in  i.^'77.  tI.o'--|,  i;,  ;icina'  <  ccupation  did  not  take  jilacc  till  1880. 
On  :;:e  otl.er  -•-le  of  t];c  CJrange  h'rcc  State  the  wliole  oi  the  tcrri- 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL         81 

1875-1894 

tories  beyond  the  Kei  River  were  included  in  the  colony  between 
1877  and  1885.  Basiitoland,  annexed  in  1871,  was  placed  under 
direct  imperial  rule  in  1883.  Here  European  settlement  is  pro- 
hibited, and  much  attention  is  devoted  to  it  as  affording  a  sort  of 
native  reserve.  Bit  by  bit  all  the  country  between  the  Kei  River, 
Natal,  and  the  Orange  Free  State  was  taken  in,  so  that  in  1884 
British  dominion,  direct  or  indirect,  extended,  including  Natal  and 
Zululand  (not  actually  annexed  till  1887),  up  to  St.  Lucia  Bay, 
with  the  exception  of  a  section  of  Pondoland,  which  was  not  an- 
nexed until  1894.  It  was  in  1875  that  Alarshal  MacMahon,  through 
a  partial  arbitrament  of  claims,  made  over  Delagoa  Bay  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, It  was  only  in  1887  that,  by  the  Tonga  Treaty,  British 
suzerainty  w^as  established  up  to  the  Portuguese  boundary.  A  pre- 
mature attempt  to  incorporate  the  Transvaal  into  the  British  Em- 
pire proved  a  failure.  One  noteworthy  event  in  the  history  of  that 
republic,  and  as  affecting  British  interests  in  this  part  of  Africa, 
is  the  convention  between  it  and  Portugal  whereby,  among  other 
things,  facilities  were  afforded  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad 
from  Delagoa  Bay.  by  which  it  was  hoped,  so  far  as  communications 
are  concerned,  the  Transvaal  would  be  independent  of  British  South 
Africa.  After  the  Boer  War  some  Transvaal  districts  were  added 
to  Natal  (1903)  ;  in  1901,  626  miles  of  railroad  were  open  in  the 
latter  colony,  and  were  connected  with  the  Johannesburg  and  Pre- 
toria lines. 

In  1884,  roused  by  the  attempts  at  extension  on  the  part  of 
the  Transvaal,  and  latterly  stimulated  by  the  activity  of  Germany, 
Great  Britain  took  her  first  long  step  toward  stretching  her  empire 
up  to  and  beyond  the  Zambezi.  By  the  labors  of  Moffat,  Living- 
stone, and  their  successors,  and  by  many  years'  intercourse  wath 
hunters  and  traders,  the  Bcchuanas  had  long  been  familiar  with  the 
British ;  Kuruman,  Mafeking,  Kolobeng,  and  Shoshong,  taking  us 
into  the  heart  of  the  Bechuana  country,  have  been  familiar  to  read- 
ers of  the  records  of  missionary  enterprises  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury. What  with  the  Germans  on  the  west,  and  the  restless  Boers 
on  the  east,  there  w^as  great  danger  of  this  extensive  territory,  Brit- 
ish in  everything  but  tlie  name,  slipping  out  of  British  hands.  With 
more  than  usual  prom])titu(le  and  daring,  treaties  were  made  in 
May,  1884,  with  the  native  chiefs,  whereby  tlie  whole  of  the  country 
nortli  of  Cape  Colony,  west  uf  the  Transvaal,  south  of  22^  south 
latitude  and  east  of  20'^  east  longitude,  was  surrendered  to  Great 


82  AFRICA 

1876-1885 

Britain,  tlioucfli  a  British  protectorate  was  not  actually  proclaimed 
till  March,  1885.  Later  in  the  same  year  the  southern  portion  was 
erected  into  the  Crown  Colony  of  British  Bechuanaland.  In  this 
protectorate  native  chiefs  continue  to  exercise  authority  under  a 
resident  commissioner.  The  northern  and  larg^er  portion,  in  which 
Khama,  an  exceptionally  intelligent  chief,  was  paramount,  remained 
a  protectorate,  with  Khama's  consent  so  proclaimed  in  May,  1885. 
All  this  was  not  brought  about  without  much  tact  and  firmness  on 
the  part  of  Sir  Charles  Warren,  who  entered  the  territory  with  an 
armed  force  to  carry  out  the  annexation.  It  was  not  without  many 
reservations  and  doubts  that  Khama  at  last  agreed  to  the  proposals 
brought  before  him  by  Sir  Charles,  but  in  the  end  he  gave  in  his 
adherence  to  the  queen  and  remained  consistently  loyal  thereafter. 
And  well  he  might,  for  it  bound  England  as  his  suzerain  to  protect 
him  against  the  raids  of  his  old  enemy,  Lobengula  of  Matabeleland. 
Sechele  and  other  cliiefs  followed  Khama's  example,  and  so  some 
160.CXX)  square  miles  were  added  to  the  British  Empire.  This, 
however,  was  not  accomplished  without  much  hesitation  and  vacil- 
lation on  the  part  of  Gladstone's  government,  in  power  from 
1880  to  1885,  and  under  whose  regime  Great  Britain  lost  much  that 
she  might  have  kept  had  there  been  more  promptitude  on  the  part 
of  the  Colonial  Office  and  Cape  government.  Events  later  led  to 
the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  under  Lord  Beaconsfield's  govern- 
ment, and  then  to  its  retrocession  under  his  successor.  The  action 
of  Germany  in  1884  roused  both  the  home  and  the  Cape  gov- 
ernments from  their  lethargy,  and  compelled  them  to  make 
haste  to  prevent  Germany  from  entirely  blocking  the  way  to  the 
Zambezi. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  Cape  did  not  formally 
annex  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand  in  1876.  This  extensive 
regifin  seems,  inrleed.  even  before  Palgrave's  mission,  to  have  been 
regarded  informally  as  an  appendage  to  the  Cape,  which  had 
had  relations  with  it  ever  since  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Palgrave  represented  to  the  natives  the  great  advantage  of  their 
being  unrjer  tlie  protection  of  the  colony,  and  to  this  it  would  seem 
they  had  nn  objcctirm.  But  all  that  was  accomplished  at  the  time 
was  the  formal  annexation  of  Walfish  Bay  and  the  surrounding 
di-trict,  the  e-triblislmu-nt  of  a  magistracy  there,  and  a  residency  at 
the  kra.'d  of  tlie  cliief  of  the  Kamahereros.  Magistrates  and  their 
staffs  were  su[)]jortc(l  by  the  Ca]je.  which  then  went  to  sleep  until 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,    PORTUGAL         83 

1884-1885 

rudely  awakened  by  the  raising  of  the  German  flag  at  Angra  Pe- 
quefia  in  1884. 

Meantime,  in  1885,  the  home  government  brought  the  subject 
of  South  African  confederation  before  the  Cape  Government  in  a 
dispatch  from  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon  to  the  governor.  The  idea 
was  to  incorporate  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  British  Crown  the 
whole  of  British  South  Africa,  along  with  the  Orange  Free  State 
and  the  Transvaal.  Mr.  Froude  was  sent  out  as  the  representative 
of  the  Colonial  Office  to  take  part  in  the  proposed  conference.  But 
the  opposition  to  confederation  was  so  strong  that  no  conference 
was  held,  and  Mr.  Froude  had  to  content  himself  with  lecturing  on 
the  subject  at  a  series  of  public  meetings.  Conferences  were  after- 
ward held  in  London  on  the  subject,  but  no  progress  was  made. 
Confederation  is  still  talked  of,  and  talked  of  hopefully;  and  under 
the  new  conditions,  arising  from  the  enormous  extension  of  British 
South  Africa,  some  form  of  federation  is  apparently  becoming  in- 
evitable. 

As  early  as  1870  the  gold  fields  of  Matabeleland  had  attracted 
diggers  and  settlers;  Mohr,  on  his  journey  to  the  Zambezi  about 
that  date,  found  Sir  John  Swinburne  and  other  Englishmen  set- 
tled at  Tati  and  working  the  quartz  reefs.  Baines  had  already  been 
in  Matabeleland,  and  later  still  Selous  and  other  hunters  traversed 
the  country  between  the  Limpopo  and  Zambezi ;  English  mission- 
aries were  at  work,  and  in  other  ways  British  influence  was  being 
spread  in  a  region  which  has  now  become  part  of  the  empire 
and  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  acquisitions  in 
Africa. 

North  of  the  Zambezi  the  spread  of  British  influence,  which 
had  been  begun  by  Livingstone  in  1859,  was  continued,  with  one 
or  two  breaks,  by  the  establishment  of  various  English  and  Scotch 
missions  on  the  Upper  Shire  and  on  Lake  Nyasa ;  by  the  placing  of 
steamers  on  the  lake;  the  establishment  of  trading  stations  by  the 
African  Lakes  Company  which  was  founded  in  1878;  and  by  ex- 
ploring journeys  in  various  directions.  A  road  was  constructed  by 
a  British  engineer,  James  Stewart,  between  Lakes  Nyasa  and 
Tanganyika.  Plantations  were  established  on  the  Blantyre  High- 
lands ;  schools  were  opened  at  various  points  over  Nyasaland ;  in- 
dustries were  introduced,  and  natives  trained  in  their  practice; 
doctors  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the  missionaries;  strenuous 
efforts  were  made  to  put  a  stop  to  the  slave-trade.     Thus,  in  spite 


84  AFRICA 

1866-1885 

of  the  somewhat  fcchlc  action  (^f  the  Lakes  Company,  British  influ- 
ence was  firmly  established  over  all  the  Lake  Nyasa  rej^^ion  by  the 
critical  year  of  1S84.  while  Portugal  had  made  no  attempt  to  take 
effective  possession  of  the  country. 

Farther  north,  at  Zanzibar  and  on  all  the  extensive  strip  of 
coast  under  the  sultan's  jurisdiction.  British  influence  was  supreme 
from  1S73  to  1SS4.  Sir  John  Kirk,  who  had  been  attached  to  the 
P.ritish  agency  at  Zanzibar  since  1866,  had,  since  1868,  been  in 
actual  cliarge  of  the  post,  with  ever-growing  influence  and  increas- 
ing power.  Me  carried  out  efl'ectually  the  policy  of  his  predecessors, 
and  under  him  British  influence  became  more  and  more  dominant. 
The  whole  policy  of  the  sultanate  was  framed  to  suit  the  wishes  of 
the  British  Government.  It  was  under  pressure  from  England,  as 
has  been  seen,  that  the  sultan,  nominally,  at  least,  abolished  the 
slave-trade.  Almost  the  entire  commerce  of  East  Africa  was  in 
the  hands  of  British  firms  and  British  subjects  from  India.  It  was 
to  promote  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  and  to  encourage  legiti- 
mate commerce  that  some  sixty  miles  of  road  into  the  interior  from 
Dar-cs-Salaam  were  constructed.  So  long  ago  as  1878  the  then 
Sultan  Sey'id  Burghash  actually  offered  to  make  over  the  commer- 
cial exploitation  of  the  whole  of  his  dominions  to  the  late  Sir  Wil- 
liam Mackinnon,  the  chairman  of  the  British  India  Steam  Naviga- 
tion Com])any,  whose  firm  had  long  had  intimate  trade  relations 
with  Zanzibar.  Mackinnon  urged  the  government  of  the  dav  (Lord 
Pcaconsfield's)  to  authorize  the  acceptance  of  this  offer  and  to  sup- 
port him  by  declaring  Zanzibar  a  British  protectorate,  a  i)rocceding 
which  Would  have  been  in  accordance  with  the  sultan's  wishes,  l^ut 
even  Lord  Bcaconsfield,  with  all  his  imperial  "  instincts,"  slirank 
from  assuming  the  responsibility.  Even  he  had  no  susjiicion  of 
the  colonial  aspirations  of  Germanv,  which  had  already  taken  deep 
root:  or  if  he  had.  he  did  not  foresee  to  what  they  would  lead.  At 
all  events,  the  op])()rtunity  was  let  slip  here  as  it  was  in  Damaraland  : 
Brit!>h  influence,  it  may  have  been  thought,  was  real  enough  witli- 
out  saddling  luigland  with  a  protectorate.  And  the  loss  has  prob- 
ably not  been  so  great  as  at  first  sight  appears;  what  precisely  that 
loss  has  been  will  be  seen  later  on. 

In  tlie  L'pjjcr  Xilc  regions — the  Egyptian  vSudan,  which  be- 
tween 1875  and  18S4  had  been  extended  as  far  south  as  Albert 
Xyanza — the  struggle  with  the  forces  of  the  Mahdi  was  at  its 
liuue^t  in  il;e  laiicr  year;  but  it  was  not  until  1885  that  the  Egyp- 


■ni7.  MiKHF.k  oi-  (,k.\i:k.\i.  (.(iiu;(i.\    ^.^■    iiik   maiiih   kf.I'.ki.s   aktf.k  thf.tk 

CAI'TIRF.  OF    KH  \Kn■^r 
/'aluliiii;  /'.v   (f.   C.  Jny 


ENGLAND,     FRANCE,     PORTUGAL         85 

1885-1886 

tian  Government  abandoned,  after  the  death  of  Gordon,  the  region 
south  of  Wady  Haifa.  This  was  done  by  the  advice  of  England, 
who  continued  to  hold  Suakin,  and  established  herself  at  Zeila  and 
Berbera,  on  the  Somali  coast.  The  Island  of  Sokotra  was  placed 
within  the  British  sphere  in  1875,  though  it  was  not  till  1886  that 
it  was  actually  annexed.  Italy  had  been  hovering  around  it  in  the 
former  year  and  it  was  rumored  that  she  desired  to  annex  it  as  a 
convict  station. 


Chapter   IX 

GERMANY    ENTERS   THE    FIELD.     1884 

IRT  us  brietly  resume  the  position  in  1884.  Up  to  that  year 
the  great  Ruroj^can  powers  in  Africa  were  England,  France 
_-^  and  Portugal.  This  last  power  claimed  enormous  terri- 
tories, but  her  iulluence  was  feeble,  and  her  actual  occupation  of 
the  most  limited  character.  The  idea  of  joining  her  east  and  west 
coast  possessions  by  a  broad  band  across  the  continent  had  only 
been  hinted  at.  England  had  virtually  agreed  to  consent  to  her 
taking  possession  of  the  strip  of  country  from  5°  12'  to  8°  south, 
including-  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.  The  Congo  Free  State  did  not 
exist,  and  the  King  of  the  Belgians  could  only  be  regarded  as  the 
chief  of  a  semi-private  enterprise  of  a  pseudo-international  charac- 
ter. France  was  firmly  established  in  Algeria  and  Tunis.  She  was 
rapidly  extending'  her  conquests  from  the  west  coast  toward  the 
Upper  Niger,  and  had  carried  her  Gaboon  territories  over  an  im- 
mense area  down  to  the  Congo.  She  had  latent  claims  to  one  or 
two  points  on  the  Gold  Coast,  and  was  strug'gling'  to  bring  Mada- 
gascar under  her  sway.  At  Obock,  on  the  Red  Sea,  she  had  a  locus 
standi,  but  not  much  more.  Great  Britain  was  practically  supreme 
in  South  Africa  up  to  the  Orange  River  and  Delagoa  Bay.  She 
believed  no  power  would  dream  of  questioning-  her  claims  to  Da- 
maraland  and  Xama(|ualand  as  her  sphere  of  influence — a  phrase, 
however,  which  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed  then.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  said  that  there  were  serious  thoughts  at  the 
Cape  of  abandoning  Walfish  Bay  entirely;  and  that  was  the  only 
position  actually  occupied  by  the  Cape  authorities.  The  Damaras 
were  in  a  chmnic  slate  of  war,  and  the  few  whites  in  their  terri- 
tories in  crmsunit  dread  of  attack.  Preparations  were  already  on 
f'»ot  to  include  the  whole  of  Bechuanaland,  for  the  commission  to 
.Sir  Hercules  PobinsfMi  to  locjk  after  British  interests  in  that  region 
was  is-ued  in  I'cbruary.  1.SX4. 

(Jn  tlic  we>t  coast  J-jigland  held  on  half-hesitatingly  to  her 
I'Air  cul(jnies,  wliile  llie  Niger  C(jm])any  was  extending  its  influence 

8(i 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         87 

1884 

on  the  river  and  buying  out  all  rivalry.  In  Nyasaland  missionaries 
and  traders  were  fairly  at  work  extending  and  consolidating  British 
influence.  IMany  settlements  had  been  planted  on  the  borders  of 
Matabeleland  and  British  travelers  were  opening  up  a  country  about 
which  little  or  nothing  could  be  learned  from  Portuguese  sources. 
At  Zanzibar  British  influence  was  supreme,  though  German  traders 
were  doing  their  best  to  supplant  English  goods  by  cheap  conti- 
nental wares.  The  Transvaal  was  still  in  a  state  of  irritation  against 
the  British  Government ;  her  borders  were  unsettled,  and  even  so 
far  back  as  1874  and  1878  she  had  toyed  with  the  idea  of  a  German 
protectorate,  and  in  1883  Boer  commissioners  went  to  Berlin  osten- 
sibly to  raise  a  loan,  actually  to  endeavor  to  get  rid  of  the  still  re- 
maining results  of  1877- 1879.  Egypt  was  fast  losing  hold  of  the 
Sudan ;  Italy  was  casting  covetous  eyes  on  Tripoli,  while  her  trav- 
elers were  exploring  Abyssinia  and  Shoa.  Spain  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  established  her  footing  on  the  Western  Sudan  coast, 
though  she  claimed  rights  on  the  River  Muni. 

Such  was  the  position  of  affairs  in  Africa  when  Germany 
entered  the  field  and  precipitated  the  comparatively  leisurely  parti- 
tion of  the  continent  into  a  hasty  scramble.  Prince  Bismarck  was 
still  the  de  facto  ruler  of  an  empire  which  had  grown  in  unity  and 
strength  and  wealth  since  its  birth  at  Versailles  in  1871,  whose  mer- 
chants were  finding  new  markets  all  over  the  world,  whose  people 
were  emigrating  in  thousands  every  year  to  strengthen  the  British 
colonies.  Germany  was  fretting  under  the  conviction  that  without 
foreign  possessions  she  could  never  be  considered  a  great  world- 
power;  she  was  tired  of  a  stay-at-home  policy. 

Cataclysms  do  not  occur  in  the  history  of  humanity  any  more 
than  they  do  in  the  physical  world.  Those  who  are  competent  to 
look  beneath  the  surface  have  no  difficulty  in  discovering  that  what 
seems  an  unaccountably  sudden  event  or  catastrophe  is  simply  the 
natural  and  inevitable  result  of  forces  that  have  been  accumulating 
and  growing  in  intensity  over  a  long  period  of  time.  The  world  at 
large  was  astonished  at  the  apparently  inexplicable  outburst  of  col- 
onizing zeal  on  the  part  of  Germany  in  the  early  part  of  1884;  and 
none  were  apparently  more  surprised  than  the  British  Foreign 
Office  and  the  government  of  the  Cape,  though  both  might  well  have 
been  prepared  for  what  occurred.  As  lias  already  been  pointed  out, 
the  desire  to  possess  colonics  is  no  impulse  of  recent  birth  in  Ger- 
many.    In  Germany,  as  in  other  European  countries,  after  the  con- 


88  A  F  RICA 

1843-1849 

tinent  had  had  time  to  recover  from  the  Napoleonic  incubus,  popu- 
latit)n  increased  and  competition  became  more  and  mcire  intense; 
and  as  tlisci>ntent  with  their  con(htion  spread  among-  the  lower 
strata  of  societv  the  fever  for  emij^ration  laid  hold  of  the  country. 
There  was  really  no  (IcM-many  then,  no  united  and  powerful  empire 
with  surplus  wealth  and  surplus  energy  to  acquire  colonies  for  itself. 
Nb)ret^ver,  e\cn  fifty  years  ago,  when  the  migrating^  spirit  began 
to  increase  in  strength,  all  the  new  fields  of  settlement  most  suited 
t>  r.uropeans  were  occupied  by  other  powers.  The  United  States, 
Canada.  South  America,  Australia,  and  the  Cape  were  crying  out 
for  colonists;  there  was  room  for  millions  of  fresh  incomers,  with 
an  almost  perfect  climate,  a  soil  that  had  only  to  be  scratched  to 
yield  the  richest  harvests,  and  rumors  of  boundless  stores  of  gold. 
It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  the  discontented  surplus  population  of 
Cicrmany  flocked  for  the  most  part  to  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
Americas,  and  a  small  proportion  both  to  Australia  and  the  Cape. 
r>ut  even  sixty  years  ago  there  was  a  feeling"  in  Germany  that  Ger- 
mans ouglit  to  have  some  place  of  their  own  beyond  the  seas  to 
which  they  might  go;  that  it  was  a  pity  for  her  sturdy  sons  and 
lusty  daughters  to  be  utilized  simply  to  infuse  fresh  vigor  and  en- 
terprise into  colonies  in  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  was  dominant. 
We  find,  then,  those  Germans  interested  in  colonization  trying  ex- 
jicriments  on  various  parts  of  the  earth,  including  lands  already 
occupied  by  their  English  cousins.  It  is  not  surprising  that  Africa 
does  not  seem  to  h.ave  been  thought  of.  for  Africa  was  all  but 
unknown  beyond  its  seaboard.  There  v.-as  at  that  date,  not  only  in 
Germany,  but  even  in  England,  considerable  attention  given  to 
Brazil  as  a  field  for  colonization.  Certainly  it  was  to  this  enormous 
country  that  tlie  efforts  of  what  we  may  call  independent  German 
c- ionization  were  first  directed.  As  early  as  1843  a  society  was 
fmmded  in  Dusseldorf  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  emigration  to 
P>razil.  Tliis  was  rapidly  followed  by  other  colonization  societies, 
sonic  directing  tlieir  attention  to  Texas,  others  to  the  AIos(|uito 
Cua^^t.  to  Xicaragua.  to  Chile.  In  1849  a  society  for  the  centraliza- 
tion of  German  C(jlonization  was  fcnnided  at  lierlin,  but  southern 
lirazil  wa-  tlie  favorite  sjjhere,  and  a  considerable  share  of  cmigra- 
ti'ii  w;ts  (lircctt'(l  to  tliat  regi(jn,  where,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  tlicre 
are  at  the  ])re-ent  dav  nuniei'ous  nourishing  German  colonies,  or, 
as  they  sli'iuld  ])erhap>  lie  called,  settlements,  since  the  territory  on 
which  they  are  planted  belong-,  to  the  Hrazilian  Government.     Most 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         89 

1866-1878 

of  these  societies,  however,  expired  without  producing-  permanent 
results. 

The  events  of  1866  gave  an  impulse  to  the  colonial  movement 
in  Germany;  but  far  more  so  the  results  of  the  war  with  France 
and  the  reconstitution  of  the  German  Empire,  under  the  hegemony 
of  Prussia,  in  1871.  Into  the  various  causes  which  contributed  to 
give  this  intensely  forward  impulse  to  Germany  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter;  all  the  scattered  energies  of  Germany  in  the  direction  of 
colonization,  as  in  other  directions,  were  united  in  one  strong  cur- 
rent. But  even  before  1871  one  of  the  most  important  societies 
for  the  promotion  of  German  interests  abroad  had  been  founded 
■ — the  "  Ccntralverein  filr  Hand  els- geographic  iind  Forderung 
deutscher  Interesse  im  Auslande"  This  society  had  its  headquar- 
ters in  Berlin,  with  branches  in  all  the  leading  cities  of  the  empire, 
and  even  in  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  New  South  Wales.  The  pro- 
fessed objects  of  the  society  were :  "  The  study  of  those  lands  in 
which  organized  German  settlements  already  exist;  the  social  and 
commercial  conditions  and  the  spread  of  information  thereon ;  the 
promotion  of  emigration  to  regions  where  settlers  of  German  origin 
are  already  established,  under  conditions  favorable  to  the  genius 
of  the  German  people;  the  promotion  of  intellectual  and  material 
intercourse  between  the  German  colonial  settlements  and  the  Ger- 
man fatherland ;  and  lastly,  furthering  the  establishment  of  trade 
and  navigation  and  the  acquisition  of  colonies."  The  programme 
is  certainly  ambitious  and  comprehensive  enough,  and  no  doubt  the 
society  in  its  meetings  and  those  of  its  branches,  and  through  its 
ably  conducted  weekly  organ,  Export,  has  done  much,  not  only 
to  promote  German  commerce,  but  also  to  foster  the  colonial 
spirit. 

But  so  far  as  Africa  was  concerned  the  great  instrument  in 
nourishing  the  growth  of  the  spirit  for  acquiring  colonies  was  the 
German  African  Society  of  Berlin,  which  combined  with  the  scien- 
tific exploration  of  the  continent  the  opening  up  of  unknown 
regions  of  Africa  to  trade  and  industry.  The  society  was  formed 
in  1878.  from  the  union  of  the  German  Society  for  the  Scientific 
Exploration  of  Equatorial  Africa,  founded  five  years  before,  and 
the  German  African  Society,  founded  in  1876,  as  a  brancli  of  the 
International  African  Association,  with  more  practical  if  somewhat 
vague  objects  in  view.  German  explorers  had  already  done  much 
for  Africa,  but  the  action  of  King  Leopola  m  founding  the  Interna- 


90  AFRICA 

1t76-1884 

tionnl  Association,  with  its  numerous  national  branches,  attracted 
more  attention  than  ever  to  Central  Africa,  from  the  utilitarian 
point  of  view.  German  stations  were  founded  at  Kakoma  and 
other  centers  in  the  I'^ast  African  interior,  from  which  much  good 
exploring  work  was  carried  on  toward  Lake  Tanganyika  and  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Lualaba.  The  German  African  Association 
showed  even  more  enterprise  in  West  Africa  than  in  East  Africa. 
Shortly  after  its  promoticMi.  Dr.  Biichner  and  Dr.  Pogge  pene- 
trated from  Angola  into  the  interior  of  the  Muata  Yanvo's  king- 
dom (^f  Lunda.  while  Wissmanivs  first  work  in  Africa  w^as  carried 
out  in  the  same  region  in  1 881-1884.  Others  followed  in  the  same 
ilireciion.  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  about  this  period  Bismarck 
entertained  serious  ideas  of  acquiring  a  footing  in  the  Congo  basin. 
During  1882- 1884  Flegel  was  extremely  active  on  the  Niger  and 
Benue.  and  undoubtedly  did  much  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
geograpliy  of  the  region.  At  the  same  time,  after-events  proved 
that  he  kept  commercial  interests  keenly  in  view. 

All  this  activity  turned  the  attention  of  Germany  more  and 
more  to  Africa,  and  helped  to  foster  the  rapidly  growing  colonial 
spirit  which  was  still  further  strengthened  by  the  doings  of  other 
l)i)wcrs  between  1876  and  1884.  Thus,  by  the  beginning  of  the 
latter  year,  this  pent-up  energy  was  ready  to  burst  forth  into  action 
whenever  Bismarck  chose  to  open  the  sluice  gate.  The  activity 
of  all  the  associations  referred  to,  the  increasing  flow  of  emigration 
which  went  to  swell  the  prosperity  of  other  countries,  the  growth 
of  commerce,  shii)ping  and  manufacturing  industry,  the  increase 
(»f  the  Prussian  navy — all  helped  to  foster  the  longing  of  Germany 
for  c<jlonies  of  her  own. 

It  was  no  wonder,  then,  that  when  the  German  Colonial  So- 
ciety was  founded  at  Frankfort,  on  December  6,  1882,  it  received 
wi(le>j;rea(l  and  enthusiastic  support.  By  the  end  of  1883  it  had 
32rxj  members  belonging  to  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Still  another 
im])u1r-c  was  gi\en  to  the  colonial  moN'ement  by  a  manifesto  issued 
by  the  (jerman  African  Society  in  the  same  year.  In  this  it  was 
stated  that  the  activity  of  the  society  would  be  concentrated  in  cer- 
tain (li>irict>,  opccially  the  basins  of  the  Xiger  and  Congo,  and  it 
was  urged  lliat  the  German  Government  should  take  steps  to  prevent 
these  regions  from  being  annexed  by  any  European  power,  and  to 
provirlc  that  they  <liould  be  open  to  the  traders  of  all  nations. 
Another   pijwerful    influence,   was   at   the   same   time    brought   to 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         91 

1878-1879 

bear  upon  Bismarck,  one  which  perhaps  more  than  any  other  de- 
termined him  to  take  the  final  action.  He  had  asked  the  Chambers 
of  Commerce  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck,  to  express  their 
views  as  to  what  would  be  the  most  effective  means  to  protect  and 
encourage  German  trade,  especially  in  Africa.  The  replies  all 
pointed,  more  or  less  directly,  to  annexation;  that  of  the  Ham- 
burg Chamber  especially,  which  went  into  the  whole  subject  in 
detail,  urged  with  incisive  clearness  the  annexation  of  independent 
coast  regions,  the  acquisition  of  a  naval  station  on  Fernando  Po, 
and  the  conclusion  of  treaties  with  native  chiefs.  It  was  this  mani- 
festo from  Hamburg,  probably,  which  determined  Bismarck  to 
bring  the  British  Foreign  Office  to  book  w^ithout  delay  with  ref- 
erence to  the  question  he  had  already  laid  before  it  as  to  the  pro- 
tection of  German  interests  in  Southwest  Africa. 

At  first  it  must  be  said,  the  colonial  movement  did  not  find 
much  favor  in  the  eyes  of  German  officialdom.  Bismarck  himself, 
it  need  hardly  be  said,  was  always  open-minded,  watching  the 
moment  when  it  would  be  safe  for  him  to  intervene.  Long  before 
1884  feelers  were  put  out  by  him  to  ascertain  how  the  pulse  of 
Prussia  beat  with  regard  to  foreign  possessions.  Even  as  far  back 
as  the  sixties  a  Prussian  squadron  returned  from  a  prospecting 
voyage  in  eastern  Asiatic  waters,  and  in  an  apparently  harmless 
description  of  the  voyage  in  the  public  press  a  suggestion  was  made 
that  Formosa  would  form  an  excellent  naval  station  for  Prussian 
ships,  and  might  even  be  utilized  as  a  colony.  Later  on,  Delagoa 
Bay,  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  a  part  of  North  Borneo,  and  other 
places  were  referred  to  in  the  same  tone.  But  though  these  feelers 
attracted  attention  and  drew  forth  protests  from  foreign  countries, 
they  met  with  no  popular  response  in  Germany.  It  was  only  after 
Germany  became  a  united  empire  under  Prussia  in  1871,  possessed 
of  a  navy  growing  in  strength  which  took  the  sons  of  the  Father- 
land in  greater  and  greater  numbers  over  the  seas,  that  the  interest 
in  trans-oceanic  matters  and  in  colonial  questions  began  to  grow 
in  breadth  and  depth.  Not  only  the  articles  which  appeared  in 
the  periodical  press,  but  various  books  which  were  published  on 
the  subject  of  colonization,  all  tended  to  help  forward  the  move- 
ment. 

Two  of  the  most  important,  certainly  two  of  the  most  in- 
fluential, of  these  publications,  were  Dr.  Emil  Jung's  "  Deutsche 
Kolonicn"   (1879),  and  Friedrich  Fabri's    ''  Bedarf    Dciitschland 


9a  AFRICA 

1840-1891 

tier  Kolonictif"  (1883).*  The  latter,  especially,  had  a  marked  in- 
tUiencc  in  intensifying  the  colonial  spirit  in  Germany,  so  much  so 
that  wlicn  Fabri  dicil.  in  i8gi,  he  was  referred  to  in  the  German 
press  as  the  father  of  German  colonization. 

It  was  aluuit  the  year  1840  that  Hamburg  houses  be^an  to  have 
intimate  trailint;:  relations  with  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  At  first 
they  had  j^reat  difTicultics  in  getting-  their  goods  into  the  African 
market,  the  traders  of  other  nationalities  stigmatizing  them  as 
*'  (lernian  trash  ":  it  was  indeed  only  by  giving  their  wares  good 
English  and  l-'rench  trade-marks  that  they  succeeded  in  securing 
a  footing  at  all.  But  the  Hamburg  traders  managed  to  make  head- 
way, and  in  1852  the  well-known  Hamburg  firm  of  Woermann 
enteretl  into  successful  trading  relations  with  Liberia,  and  by  1859 
had  factories  at  various  points  of  the  coast,  between  the  Cameroons 
and  tlie  Gaboon,  and  even  as  far  south  as  Angola.  The  Woermanns 
were  soon  followed  by  the  O'Swalds  and  Hansings  of  Hamburg, 
WHO  in  the  iifth  decade  of  the  past  century  secured  a  footing  at  Zan- 
zil)ar.  In  1854  the  O'Swalds  established  a  factory  at  Lagos,  before 
it  became  a  British  colony,  and  soon  did  a  flourishing  business  by 
importing  from  Zanzibar  enormous  quantities  of  cowrie  shells,  the 
local  currency,  which  they  exchanged  for  native  products.  These 
were  followed  in  their  African  ventures  by  other  Hamburg  and 
Bremen  firins,  and  in  1859  the  three  Hanse  towns  concluded  a 
commercial  treaty  with  tlie  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  by  which  certain 
trade  privileges  were  accorded  to  them.  Ten  years  later  this 
treaty  was  made  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  Xorth  German  Confed- 
eration. After  the  formation  of  the  confederation,  and  especially 
after  the  conversion  into  one  United  Empire,  the  trade  of  Ger- 
many increased  with  giant  strides,  and  the  factories  on  the  west 
cfjast  of  -Airica  became  more  and  more  numerous,  while  commer- 
cial interc'  ursc  with  Zanzibar  grew  steadily.  In  the  beginning  of 
1SN4  tlicrc  were  some  fifteen  German  firms,  mostly  of  Hamburg 
and  liremcn.  whicli  liad  among  them  about  sixty  factories  on  the 
went  coast  1.1  Africa,  extendmg  frt^m  Portuguese  Guinea  down 
tlirougli  Liberia,  ilie  (iuinea  Coast,  the  Camer(jons,  the  Gabo(jn, 
the  (Jgjvc.  and  tr.e  Cong(j  mr)uth,  to  Damaraland.  In  addition 
the  -Xorth  German  and  the  Basel  Missionary  Societies  had  some 
hundred  -taiiiai-,  all  ali^ng  the  west  coast,  and  a  considerable  num- 

^ 'J"o  tlu-c-  -I'.r.'ild  I)u  ;i(l(k(]  v..  von  Wcbcr,  "Die  Erwcitcrung  dcs  dcutschen 
Wirt5chaft.-gcbiLic>,''  tic.     Lcip/iLj,   1879.— Eu. 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         93 

1874-1884 

ber  in  the  interior  of  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand.  Thus  when 
in  1884  Bismarck  took  the  decisive  step  in  the  creation  of  a  "  Co- 
lonial Empire,"  it  was  not  the  remains  of  the  old  Brandenburg 
Fort  of  Gross-Friedrichsburg  alone  and  the. scientific  work  which 
had  been  done  by  German  explorers,  that  suggested  Africa  as  an 
inviting  field ;  there  were  substantial  German  interests  all  along 
the  west  coast  clamoring  for  the  protection  of  the  German  flag. 
It  was,  moreover,  natural  that  German  traders  should  desire  to  have 
fields  for  their  energies  independent  of  the  competition  of  foreign 
rivals,  in  which  they  could  impose  their  own  tariffs,  and  have  it 
all  their  own  way.  It  is  probably  known  to  few  that  as  long  ago 
as  1874  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  made  overtures  for  the  purpose 
of  having  his  territory  placed  under  German  protection ;  but  Bis- 
marck, whatever  his  personal  inclinations,  knew  that  at  that  time 
there  was  no  chance  of  obtaining  a  hearing  for  such  a  proposal 
in  the  German  Parliament,  and  therefore  declined  it.  Ten  years 
later  the  position  had  entirely  changed. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  long  and  irritating  corre- 
spondence w^hich  took  place  between  the  Foreign  Offices  of  Ger- 
many and  Great  Britain  with  regard  to  tlie  claims  of  German 
subjects  in  the  Fiji  Islands  had  much  to  do  in  fostering  the  colonial 
spirit  in  Germany  and  precipitating  action  in  Africa  as  well  as 
elsewhere.  The  whole  tone  of  the  communications  of  the  British 
Foreign  Office  on  the  subject  reveals  the  fact  that  the  colonial 
aspirations  of  Germany  were  either  unknown  in  that  quarter  or 
were  not  taken  seriously.  But  when  the  first  step  was  taken  in 
Africa  no  time  was  lost  in  coming  to  an  understanding  with  Ger- 
many with  reference  to  her  claims. 

Here  let  us  once  more  recall  the  fact  that  in  her  new^  departure 
Germany's  choice  was  practically  restricted  to  tropical  Africa  and 
the  tropical  Pacific.  It  was  only  in  Central  Africa  that  any  Euro- 
pean power  desirous  of  acquiring  foreign  possessions,  and  not 
caring  to  go  to  war  for  them,  had  a  free  hand.  At  the  same  time, 
it  will  be  seen,  an  effort  was  made  on  behalf  of  Germany  to  obtain 
a  footing  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi.  It  was  natural,  moreover, 
that  a  beginning  sliould  be  made  in  \\'est  Africa,  where  German 
interests  were  so  wi(lcs])rea(l  and  so  important. 

From  the  beginning  of  tlie  last  century  missionaries  from 
South  Africa  had  j)enetrritcd  into  Xam.ujualand  and  Damaraland  to 
carry  on  their  work  among  the  natives  in  a  region  much  of  which  is 


94  AFRICA 

1842-1864 

not  very  far  removed  from  the  desert  staple.  Some  of  these  mission- 
aries were  of  German  nationality,  but  they  were  in  the  service  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society.  As  has  been  seen  in  a  previous 
diapter,  however,  expethtions  were  sent  from  the  Cape  in  the  last 
century,  when  it  was  a  Dutch  colony,  to  report  upon  this  part  of 
the  country,  and.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  part  at  least  of  the  coast 
rec^ion  had  been  annexed  to  tlie  colony.  This  annexation  was 
allowed  to  lapse,  or  was  forgotten ;  at  any  rate  no  reference  was 
made  to  it  when  the  Cape  Government  protested  against  the  recent 
German  occupation.  Seventy  years  ago,  when  the  only  route  to 
India  was  by  St.  Helena  and  the  Cape,  Walfish  Bay  was  utilized 
for  the  purpose  of  exporting  cattle  to  supply  the  ships  calling  at 
St.  Helena ;  for  the  country  can  support  considerable  herds.  But 
no  step  was  then  taken  toward  actual  annexation  to  the  Cape,  and 
in  time  the  cattle  export  fell  off.  though  in  more  recent  years  it 
has  been  revived  from  the  Cape.  In  1842  the  Rhenish  Mission 
established  its  first  station  at  Bethanien  in  Namaqualand.  Other 
stations  in  the  interior  were  founded,  and  the  German  missionaries 
made  numerous  converts  and  acquired  considerable  influence;  at 
the  same  time  they  did  not  deem  it  inconsistent  with  their  spiritual 
functions  to  carry  on  trade  with  the  natives  in  a  small  w\ay.  Walfish 
Bay  still  cr)ntinued  to  be  of  importance  as  the  chief  harbor  on  the 
whole  extent  of  coast-line.  In  time,  the  disputes  and  wars  which 
arose  among  the  natives  endangered  the  lives  and  property  of  the 
Rhenish  missionaries,  and  they  appealed,  in  1868,  to  their  govern- 
ment for  protection.  The  Prussian  Government  at  once  communi- 
cated with  the  British  Government  and  suggested  a  joint  demon- 
stration of  English  and  German  warships.  England  did  not 
approve  of  this,  but  expressed  herself  ready  to  extend  the  same 
protection  to  German  subjects  as  she  would  to  her  own ;  of  course 
this  implied  on  the  part  of  England  that  she  claimed  Damaraland 
and  Xamaqnaland  as  witliin  her  sphere,  a  claim  tacitly  acknowl- 
e(!i.,^C(l  l)y  Germany.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  England  neither  directly 
UMf  tiifdugh  the  Cape  Government  exercised  any  real  inlluence  in 
the  country. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  Germans  actually  acquired, 
for  the  first  time,  territory  in  this  country  which  they  could 
call  tlicir  own.  In  1864  the  missionaries  bought  the  ground  and 
buildings  of  the  Walfisli  Bay  Cfj])i)cr  Company  at  Otyimbingue, 
sonic  distance  to   the   n<jrlhc:asl  of   the  bay;    and   here  they  took 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         95 

1877-1881 

every  opportunity  to  hoist  the  flag  of  their  country.  Trade,  more- 
over, went  on  expanding,  and  a  missionary  trading  society  was 
actually  founded  in  Barmen.  This  trade  had,  however,  to  be  car- 
ried on  through  the  Cape,  the  tariffs  of  which  somewhat  hampered 
it,  and  latterly  these  tariffs  were  also  applied  to  Walfish  Bay,  when 
the  Germans  sought  to  have  direct  communication  with  Europe, 
and  Boers  from  the  Transvaal  began  to  break  into  the  country. 
Sir  Bartle  Frere,  who  was  governor  of  the  Cape  from  1877  to  1881, 
was  shrewd  enough  to  see  what  might  be  the  end  of  these  aspira- 
tions on  the  part  of  German  missionary  traders,  but  his  expressed 
fears  of  German  designs  were  ridiculed,  and  it  was  only  to  please 
the  "  old  man,"  as  he  was  called,  that  Walfish  Bay  and  fifteen  miles 
round  it  were  declared  British  territory  in  March,  1878.  Previous 
to  this  Mr.  Palgrave  had  visited  and  reported  on  the  country, 
and  had  made  treaties  with  the  most  powerful  chiefs.  The  gov- 
ernor of  the  Cape  had  urged  that  the  whole  country  should  be 
formally  annexed,  but  the  government  of  the  period  (Beacons- 
field's)  would  not  go  beyond  Walfish  Bay,  where  a  feeble  show 
of  administration  not  extending  beyond  the  station  was  established. 
Frequent  complaints  were  made  by  the  German  missionaries 
of  their  treatment  by  the  natives,  and  at  last  Mr.  Palgrave  was 
compelled  to  formally  intimate  that  Great  Britain  had  no  power 
over  the  native  chiefs.  Evasive  answers  were  returned  to  the 
memorials  from  the  missionaries  asking  definitely  whether  they 
could  reckon  on  the  protection  of  England.  At  last  an  appeal  was 
made  to  the  German  consul  at  the  Cape  and  to  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment, with  the  result  that  in  1880  all  British  officials  were 
withdrawn  from  Damaraland,  and  only  Walfish  Bay  remained 
under  the  British  flag.  During  1880  fresh  representations  con- 
tinued to  be  made  by  the  German  missionaries — who  claimed  5000 
converts,  and  substantial  commercial  interests  in  the  country — as 
to  the  uncertainty  of  their  position.  Again  Bismarck  begged  the 
British  Foreign  Office  to  say  whether  the  government  were  pre- 
pared to  protect  both  English  and  German  interests  in  Damaraland 
and  Namaqualand  in  view  of  the  fact  that  war  was  raging  in  the 
country.  Lord  Granville,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  Foreign 
Office  at  the  time,  followed  the  example  set  by  his  predecessor, 
Beaconsfield,  and  repudiated  all  responsibility  outside  of  Walfish 
Bay;  and  to  make  tlie  position  quite  clear,  in  the  instructions  given 
to  Sir  Hercules  Robinson  as  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  under  date 


96  AFRICA 

1g80-1883 

December  30.  iSv'^o.  it  was  disiinctly  stated  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment retrardcd  the  Granite  River  as  the  northwestern  boundary  of 
Cape  Cciliun-.  and  wcmiKI  lend  no  encouraj^cnient  to  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  liriiish  jnrisdicti(>n  in  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand  out- 
side (if  W'alfisli  r)ay.  The  arrani:;-emcnt  with  regard  to  the  latter 
w'ouKl  not  he  disturbed  so  loncf  as  the  Cape  Parliament  continued 
to  be  responsible  for  the  expenses  of  its  maintenance.  This  was 
clear  enough,  and  Cape  Colony  was  apparently  quite  willing  to 
acijuiesce  in  the  practical  abandonment  of  the  territory. 

Still,  the  German  missionaries  were  not  satisfied,  and  the 
German  Government  sliowed  itself  quite  ready  to  sympathize  with 
their  position  and  to  support  their  complaints.  In  August,  1881, 
they  again  approached  the  German  Government,  and  begged  that 
a  German  war-ship  should  be  sent  to  protect  their  interests.  In 
October  of  the  same  year,  in  reply  to  a  further  communication  from 
Berlin,  the  British  Foreign  Office  once  more  repudiated  all  re- 
sponsibility outside  of  the  narrow  circle  around  Walfish  Bay. 

Such,  then,  was  the  position  between  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many in  the  end  of  1882,  with  reference  to  a  great  stretch  of  terri- 
tory on  the  border  of  Cape  Colony.  Neither  at  home  nor  in  the 
Cape  Colony  was  there  any  suspicion,  apparently,  that  Germany 
was  in  the  least  likely  to  settle  down  as  a  colonial  power  at  the 
t'lreshold  of  tl:e  Cape.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  very  strong 
feeling  existed  among  all  parties  at  home,  at  that  date,  against 
the  extension  of  iiuperial  resj)onsibility.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, whatever  may  have  been  the  conception  which  prevailed  in 
London,  there  is  no  doubt  that  at  the  Cape,  Damaraland  and  Na- 
maqualand were  somewhat  vaguely  regarded  as  within  the  colonial 
"  ?i)l:ere  of  inthience."  But  the  e\cnts  with  which  we  are  dealing 
occurred  before  tlic  dale  of  the  Berlin  Congress,  and  the  principle 
of  *'  splicres  of  influence  "  had  not  been  laid  down  as  one  of  the 
rulc^  i;i  tlie  great  game  of  colonial  aggrandizement.  It  is,  more- 
over, difticult  to  realize  the  vast  change  which  has  taken  place 
since  1883  in  tlie  jjrevailing  conception  of  the  relation  between  the 
motlxT  country  and  lier  colonies.  The  idea  of  the  solidarity  of  the 
enq)ire  luay  by  c<imparisi'n  be  said  to  have  scarcely  existed  at  that 
time;  inipcriali>m  has  nnw  a  totally  different  meaning  from  what 
il  tl:cn  had.  At  tjiat  time  neither  the  one  party  nor  the  other 
forc-aw  what  th.e  near  future  had  in  store;  Beaconsfield  was  as 
indifferent,  (^r  a-:  Llii^l,  a:^  Granville.    The  truth  is   that  no  one  took 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD         97 

1882-1883 

Germany's  colonial  aspirations  seriously;  no  one  seems  to  have 
dreamed  that  she  would  ever  be  likely  to  make  large  annexations, 
either  on  the  Pacific  or  in  Africa.  It  was  hardly  realized  that  in 
the  short  space  of  twelve  years,  after  the  union  of  the  empire, 
Germany  was  ready  to  become  a  great  world-power.  We  have  seen 
how  strong  the  colonial  movement  had  become  in  Germany,  and 
how  carefully  Bismarck  was  feeling  the  pulse  of  the  country.  It 
seems  surprising  that  after  all  the  correspondence  which  had  taken 
place  between  the  two  governments,  the  suspicion  of  the  British 
Foreign  Office  was  not  aroused ;  for  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
had  Bismarck  been  taken  seriously,  something  would  have  been 
done  to  retain  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand  within  the  British 
sphere,  if  for  no  other  reason,  with  a  view  to  a  united  Brit- 
ish Africa  south  of  the  Zambezi.  Apparently  up  to  the  final  mo- 
ment, when  the  German  flag  was  raised  on  the  coast  of  Namaqua- 
land, neither  in  London  nor  at  the  Cape  was  it  believed  that  the 
correspondence  which  had  been  going  on  for  twenty-five  years 
would  result  in  action  by  Germany. 

"  Ohne  Hast,  ohnc  Rast,"  has  been  the  motto  of  Germany  in 
her  colonial  enterprises,  as  it  has  been  in  other  spheres — at  least, 
until  she  has  actually  entered  into  possession.  She  proceeded  de- 
liberately and  openly,  she  conducted  her  game  with  the  admirable 
foresight  of  a  consummate  chess-player,  who  sees,  far  ahead,  what 
will  be  the  effect  of  any  particular  move.  The  step  taken  by  tlie 
Bremen  merchant  Liideritz  in  the  summer  of  1882  had  certainly 
something  more  in  view  than  the  acquisition  of  a  private  trading 
station  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  inner  circle  of  the  colonial 
party  in  Germany,  we  cannot  but  think,  intended  the  action  of 
Herr  Liideritz  as  the  first  delicate  step  toward  the  accomplishment 
of  their  colonial  aspirations,  a  sort  of  test  case,  that  would  bring 
the  British  Government  to  book,  and  force  the  hand  of  Prince 
Bismarck.  At  the  date  mentioned  Plerr  Liideritz  (who  may  be 
regarded  as  the  representative  of  that  section  of  the  Germnn 
colonial  party  interested  in  Africa)  had  matured  his  plan  and 
fixed  upon  the  scene  of  his  operations.  Under  date  of  November 
16,  1882,  he  communicated  his  projects  to  the  German  Forci[;n 
Office,  and  asked  wliether  he  might  reckon  upon  the  protection  of 
the  German  Government  for  any  riglits  which  he  might  secure. 
Bismarck  was  in  no  hurry.  It  was  not  till  February  7,  1883,  tliat 
he  sent,  through  his  son,  the  following  cautious  communication  to 


98  AFRICA 

1883 

the  British  Foreipi  Office,  a  communication  which  in  the  light 
of  events  that  followed  seems  suggestive  enough,  but  which  at 
the  time  apparently  excited  little  suspicion  at  the  Foreign  Office. 
The  communication  may  be  regarded  as  indicating  that  Bismarck 
had  at  last  made  up  his  mind  to  act.  and  to  carry  out  as  far  as 
practicable  the  designs  of  the  German  colonial  party.  And  yet 
the  reservation  contained  in  the  final  words  is  noteworthy: — was 
it  only  intended  to  lull  any  lurking  suspicions  of  the  not  too  wide- 
awake British  Ministers?  The  following  is  the  minute  made  by 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote  of  a  conversation  with  Count  Herbert  Bis- 
marck, under  date  February  7,  1883: 

"  Count  Iiismarck  says  that  a  Bremen  merchant  is  about  to 
establish  a  factory  near  the  coast,  between  the  Orange  River  and 
the  Little  Fish  River,  and  has  asked  protection  of  the  German 
Government  in  case  of  need.  The  latter  desire  to  know  whether 
Her  Majesty's  Government  exercise  any  authority  in  that  locality. 
If  so,  they  would  be  glad  if  they  would  extend  British  protection 
to  the  German  factory.  If  not,  they  will  do  their  best  to  extend 
to  it  the  same  measure  of  protection  which  they  give  to  their  sub- 
jects in  remote  parts  of  the  world,  but  without  having  the  least 
design  to  establish  any  footing  in  South  Africa." 

To  this  the  following  reply  was  returned  under  date  Febru- 
ary 23,  1883,  signed  by  Lord  Granville,  with  the  concurrence  of 
Lord  Derby : 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  acquaint  your  Excellency  that,  having 
consulted  the  Colonial  Office  upon  the  subject,  I  am  informed  by 
that  department  that  the  government  of  the  Cape  Colony  have 
certain  establishments  along  the  coast,  but  that,  without  more  pre- 
cise information  as  to  the  spot  where  the  German  factory  will  be 
c^ablished,  it  is  not  possible  to  form  any  opinion  as  to  whether 
the  British  authorities  would  have  it  in  their  power  to  give  it  any 
protection  in  case  of  need.  If,  however,  the  German  Government 
would  be  good  enough  to  furnish  the  required  information,  it 
would  be  forwarded  to  the  government  of  Cape  Colony,  with  in- 
structions to  report  whether  and  to  what  extent  their  wishes  could 
be  met." 

It  was,  however,  clearly  not  the  intention  either  of  Prince 
Bismarck  or  of  Herr  Liideritz  to  aw^ait  the  leisure  of  the  Cape  Gov- 
ernment nor  to  submit  to  the  procrastinating  policy  of  the  British 
I'oreign  Office.     The  lesson  taught  in  connection  with  the  delay  in 


GERMANY    ENTERS     THE     FIELD         99 

1883 

settling  the  German  claims  in  Fiji  had  been  taken  to  heart.  By 
the  beginning  of  1883  Liideritz  had  collected  very  full  information 
with  regard  to  the  coast  of  Namaqualand,  and  had  definitely  ar- 
ranged all  his  plans.  He  was,  therefore,  in  a  position  to  ask  the 
German  Foreign  Office  whether  he  might  reckon  upon  imperial 
protection  for  any  territory  which  he  might  acquire  in  Southwest 
Africa.  The  reply  was  that  if  he  succeeded  in  acquiring  any  har- 
bor to  which  no  other  nation  could  establish  any  just  claim,  he 
might  reckon  upon  imperial  protection  for  his  undertaking. 
Liideritz  at  once  intrusted  the  execution  of  his  plans  to  an  ener- 
getic agent,  who  went  out  to  the  Cape  to  collect  further  informa- 
tion concerning  the  country  in  which  the  operations  were  to  take 
place.  He  was  followed  by  a  vessel,  the  Tilly,  supplied  with  every 
requisite  for  the  important  enterprise,  except  an  ox-wagon,  a  tent, 
and  a  few  other  things  which  were  obtained  at  the  Cape.  Here 
several  Germans  familiar  with  South  African  conditions  were  taken 
on  board,  and  the  Tilly  left  Cape  Town  on  April  5,  arriving  on 
April  9  at  the  Bay  of  Angra  Pequena,  about  150  miles  to  the  north 
of  the  Orange  River,  the  declared  boundary  of  Cape  Colony,  and 
280  to  the  south  of  Walfish  Bay,  of  which  England  still  claimed 
possession.  With  the  help  of  some  English  seal-fishermen  on  the 
islands  that  protect  the  bay,  the  ship  was  brought  to  anchor  oppo- 
site a  safe  landing-place;  the  actual  landing  was  effected  on  the 
1 2th.  Word  was  sent  to  the  mission  station  at  Bethany,  about  100 
miles  in  the  interior,  the  residence  of  the  chief,  Joseph  Frederick. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  April  30  that  the  Germans  reached 
Bethany  across  the  almost  waterless  desert  that  intervened.  On 
the  I  St  of  May,  in  a  conference  with  the  chief,  at  which  the  Ger- 
man missionaries  and  the  chief  men  of  the  tribe  were  present,  the 
object  of  his  mission  was  explained,  and  without  much  difficulty 
a  contract  was  signed  by  the  chief  and  others  interested,  by  which 
the  former  sold  to  Liideritz  some  215  square  miles  of  land  on  the 
Bay  of  Angra  Pequena,  including  all  rights  of  supremacy.  This 
included  about  ten  miles  of  coast,  and  an  extension  inland  of  some 
twenty-four  miles.  On  the  day  after  the  conference  these  pioneers 
of  German  colonization  returned  to  the  coast,  where  with  jubilation 
the  German  flag  was  raised  in  front  of  the  storehouse  which  had 
been  erected,  and  floated  on  tlie  breeze  over  the  first  German  colony. 
The  news  of  what  had  taken  place  was  received  with  enthusiasm 
by  the  colonial  party  in  Germany,  and  contributed  greatly  to  in- 


100  AFRICA 

1881-1883 

crease   its  numbers,  and  enlist  the  entliusiasm  of  the  empire  on 
behalf  of  its  aims. 

In  Kn.q:lanil  the  rumor  that  an  "  irresponsible  German  ad- 
venturer"  or  **  filibuster  "  had  dared  to  raise  a  foreign  Hag  on  the 
confines  of  Cape  Colony,  on  a  coast  that  had  always  been  regarded 
as  within  the  "  British  sphere."  was  received  with  incredulity  and 
ridicule.  Bismarck",  it  was  asserted,  would  never  lend  his  counte- 
naiuc  to  such  an  unfriendly,  if  not  actually  hostile,  act.  And  the 
lM»rcign  Ofticc  ha(l  grown  so  used  to  Germany's  representations 
and  remonstrances,  not  only  with  reference  to  South  Africa,  but  in 
cmmection  with  iMJi,  that  it  was  fondly  believed  this  fresh  episode 
wouKl  vanish  with  another  interchange  of  communications.  In 
the  Cape,  as  might  have  been  expected,  the  news  of  Liideritz's 
enterprise  was  redcived  with  indignation  and  incredulity.  An  Eng- 
lisli  war-ship,  the  Boadicca,  sailed  from  Cape  Town  to  Angra 
Pequena.  ai)parently  to  assert  British  rights;  but  she  was  met 
there  by  the  German  corvette  Carola,  whose  commander  informed 
the  English  captain  that  he  was  in  German  waters,  where  he  could 
exercise  no  authority  whatever.  The  Boadicca  returned  to  the 
Cape  on  Xovcmber  3  with  the  news  that  ?Ierr  Liideritz  had 
acquired  rights  over  the  coast  down  to  the  Orange  River.  The 
Cape  Government  was  at  last  awakened  to  the  true  position  of 
afTairs,  though  tlie  home  government  still  apparently  cherished 
the  hope  tiiat  the  action  of  Liideritz  was  unsupported  by  his  gov- 
ernment, and  tliat  all  could  yet  be  arranged  to  the  satisfaction  of 
tlie  colony.  Every  scrap  of  evidence  that  could  pro\e  British 
rights  over  tlie  ci^st  was  sought  for  and  put  forward,  but  when  it 
came  to  be  coolly  weighed,  there  was  no  shadow  of  documentary 
proof  iliat  any  step  had  ever  been  taken  to  annex  any  ])art  of  the 
regidU  except  W'ahish  liay,  and  one  or  two  guano  islands  off  Angra 
Pequcna :  the  evidence  was  all  the  otiier  wav.  British  Ministers 
liad  repeatedly,  during  the  past  twcntv-five  vears.  positively  de- 
clinc^l  t')  undertake  llie  responsibility  of  annexing  Damaraland  and 
Xaniaqualand.  So  recently  as  1881  the  governor  of  the  Cape  was 
infi'rnied  tiiat  tlic  Orange  Ri\er  was  the  bcnmdarv  of  the  colony. 
'1  lie  C.'ijie  (j"\xrnnK'nt  unuld  ficcasitmally  express  the  opinion  that 
tliis  Hwrihcrn  territory  ought  reallv  to  be  annexed;  but  when  the 
hf^nie  g"-.cninicnt  a-kcd  if  the  colony  were  willing  to  undertake 
tlie  nerc--ary  c:-:pi;i^c.  ihc  latter  alwavs  shrank  from  tlie  burden. 
Even  now  its  minister.-,  instead  of  acting,  spent  their  energies  in 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD       101 

1882-1883 

vain  protests.  It  was  only  after  the  country  had  been  irrevocably 
lost  that  any  real  desire  for  its  possession  seems  to  have  found  ex- 
pression in  Cape  Colony;  otherwise  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
why  on  the  first  news  of  Herr  Liideritz's  enterprise  steps  were  not 
taken  to  annex  at  least  the  great  stretch  of  coast  which  he  had 
left  untouched.  Everyone  knew  that  much  of  the  country  was 
only  one  stage  removed  from  desert,  and  as  to  the  copper  and 
silver  mines,  even  if  they  proved  productive  it  would  never  pay  to 
work  them.  But  sentiment,  natural  enough,  obscured  the  judgment 
of  Cape  statesmen  and  colonists  and  led  them  to  aggravate  the 
situation  by  irritating  the  imperial  pride  of  Germany.  And  yet 
all  this  was  mingled  with  a  strange  indifference  that  led  to  the 
loss  of  time,  when  every  day  was  of  importance. 

On  August  1 8,  1883,  the  imperial  government  informed  the 
German  consul  at  the  Cape  that  they  were  prepared  to  take 
Liideritz's  acquisitions  under  their  protection  if  the  rights  of  others 
were  not  interfered  with  thereby;  and  on  October  15  the  gunboat 
N'aittiliis  was  ordered  to  Angra  Pequena  to  protect  German  inter- 
ests. On  November  12  the  German  Minister  in  London  was  in- 
structed to  inquire  whether  or  not  there  were  any  British  claims 
over  the  Angra  Pequena  district,  and  if  so,  on  what  titles  were 
they  based.  Ten  days  later  Lord  Granville  replied  that  England 
exercised  sovereignty  only  over  certain  parts  on  the  coast,  as  Wal- 
fish  Bay  and  some  islands  opposite  Angra  Pequena ;  but  that  at  the 
same  time,  any  claim  of  sovereignty  or  jurisdiction  on  the  part 
of  a  fcjreign  power  over  any  part  of  the  coast  between  the  Portu- 
guese boundary  and  the  Orange  River  would  be  regarded  as  an 
encroaclmient  on  the  legitimate  rights  of  the  colony.  The  British 
Government,  Lord  Granville  stated,  to  prevent  disputes  between 
the  Germans  and  the  English  who  believed  they  had  old  rights  at 
Angra  Pequena,  had  sent  a  war-ship,  and  the  report  of  its  mission 
was  awaited.  The  vessel  was  the  Boadicca,  the  result  of  whose 
visit  we  have  already  seen.  At  the  same  time  Lord  Granville  hoped 
that  arrangements  might  be  made  by  which  the  Germans  could  take 
part  in  the  settlement  of  Angra  Pecjuena.  It  is  evident  that  in 
November,  1883,  Lord  Granville  did  not  in  the  least  realize  the 
seriousness  of  the  situation.  'I'his  evasive  answer  failed  to  satisfy 
Prince  Bismarck,  who  repeated  his  question  on  December  31. 
through  the  German  Ambassador,  Count  Miinster,  rc.-alling  ])re- 
vious  correspondence  with   reference  to  the  German  missionaries 


102  A  F  RICA 

1883-1884 

and  the  repeated  declarations  of  the  British  Government  that  they 
had  no  jurisdiction  over  any  part  of  the  region  in  question  outside 
W'aHlsh  Hav.  Moreover.  Bismarck  pointed  out  tiiat  England  her- 
self (as  in  the  case  of  Spain  in  tlie  Caroline.  Pelcw,  and  Sulu 
Islanils)  had  asserted  a  right  to  interfere  directly  for  the  protection 
of  her  own  suhjocts  where  no  adeciuate  political  administration  had 
heen  cstahlishcil  hy  the  power  claiming  the  territory.  This  Ger- 
many was  entitled  to  do  for  her  subjects  at  Angra  Pequena.  and 
tliereforc  Bismarck  begged  to  be  informed  as  to  the  title  on  which 
Ivngland's  professed  claims  were  based,  and  as  to  what  means  she 
liad  taken  to  protect  German  subjects  so  as  to  relieve  Germany  from 
the  necessity  cf  protecting  them  herself.  In  the  light  of  subsecpient 
events  one  cannot  but  admire  the  skill  with  w^hich  the  communica- 
tion was  worded;  Lord  Derby  subsequently  admitted  that  it  lulled 
all  his  suspicions.  The  home  government  communicated  with  the 
Gape  Go\crnment  on  the  subject,  but  no  notice  was  taken  of  this 
communication  and  no  answer  vouchsafed  until  May  29,  1884, 
when  the  Cape  Government  intimated  that  they  would  rec- 
oiumend  Parliament  to  undertake  the  control  of  the  whole  coast 
to  W'alfish  Bay,  Angra  Pequena  included. 

While  the  Cape  Government  were  treating  the  civil  inquiries 
of  Germany  with  contemptuous  neglect,  steps  were  being  taken 
to  tighten  more  and  more  firmly  Germany's  hold  on  her  first  trans- 
oceanic possession.  The  Bremen  merchants  were  actively  opening 
up  the  territory  and  with  German  thorouglmess  promoting  its  ex- 
ploratirjn  and  instituting  observations  on  its  climate.  On  April 
24.  1884,  the  German  consul  at  the  Cape  was  instructed  to  remove 
all  doubts  entertained  by  the  Cape  Government  by  informing  it 
othcially  that  Liideritz  and  his  possessions  were  placed  under  the 
protection  of  the  empire;  and  to  enforce  the  information  a  Ger- 
man war->hip  was  ordered  to  Angra  Pequena.  Still  Bismarck  can 
hardly  have  been  taken  seriously  either  at  home  or  at  the  Cape. 
In  reply  to  a  que>tion  in  the  Upper  House  on  May  12,  Lord  Gran- 
ville .-lated  tliat,  so  far  as  he  knew.  Germany  had  never  claimed 
sovereignty  over  any  part  of  the  territory  in  question,  and  that 
th.e  matter  was  -till  the  subject  of  discussion  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments. Two  (lays  later  Lord  Derby  informed  a  deputation  who 
waited  u\)- ^n  l.ini.  that  altliuugh  England  herself  never  directly 
annexed  Angra  Pequena.  she  nevertheless  claimed  the  right  to 
exclude  all  other  jjowers  from  the  coast  north  of  the  Orange  River; 


GERMANY     ENTERS     THE     FIELD       103 

1883-1884 

Germany  had  been  asking  some  questions  on  the  subject,  but  ap- 
peared to  have  no  intention  of  establishing  a  colony  at  Angra 
Pequena.  He  himself  did  not  share  the  fears  with  which  some 
persons  regarded  the  professed  projects  of  the  German  Govern- 
ment to  establish  colonies  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  for  colo- 
nization did  not  enter  into  the  programme  of  the  German  Empire. 
Germany  believed  that  the  secret  of  her  power  lay  in  concentra- 
tion, and  she  would  never  weaken  herself  by  taking  possession  of 
lands  in  distant  parts  of  the  world.  Cape  Colony  was  ready  to 
annex  Angra  Pequefia,  and  if  the  British  Government  saw  that  it 
would  be  done  honorably  and  with  the  prospect  of  good  results, 
it  would  give  its  consent,  but  in  that  case.  Cape  Colony  must  be  pre- 
pared to  bear  all  the  burdens.  In  a  subsequent  memorandum, 
October  7,  1884,  on  the  subject  Lord  Derby  tried  hard  to  prove 
that  the  German  Government  had  all  along  given  him  reason  to 
believe  that  territorial  acquisition  was  not  at  all  in  their  thoughts ; 
and  it  must  be  said  that  with  all  their  apparent  openness  and  frank- 
ness, Bismarck's  earlier  communications  were  devised  with  an 
amount  of  skill,  sufficient,  as  it  proved,  to  quiet  any  suspicions  on 
the  part  of  the  British  Colonial  and  Foreign  Ministers. 

Bismarck  was  losing  patience.  He  sent  very  explicit  instruc- 
tions on  June  10  to  Count  Miinster  on  the  subject,  and  at  the  same 
time  Count  Herbert  Bismarck  went  to  London  on  a  special  mission 
to  bring  matters  to  a  final  issue.  The  result  was  inevitable ;  on 
June  21  the  British  Cabinet  decided  to  recognize  the  German  pro- 
tectorate over  Angra  Pequena;  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  actual 
protectorate  had  by  this  time  been  extended  over  a  considerable 
part  of  the  coast,  and  the  eminent  explorer,  Dr.  Xachtigal,  was  on 
his  way  as  German  consul-general  to  formally  proclaim  the  im- 
perial sovereignty  over  the  whole  stretch  of  unoccupied  coast.  And 
yet  the  Cape  Parliament,  encouraged  no  doubt  by  Lord  Derby's 
attitude,  ignoring  all  that  had  passed  during  the  previous  six 
months,  voted  unanimously  so  late  at  July  16  for  the  annexation 
of  the  territory  between  the  Orange  River  and  the  Portuguese 
boundary.  Even  at  that  date,  apparently,  tliey  had  not  realized 
that  Bismarck  was  in  earnest;  and  so  late  as  August  25  the  Cape 
Ministers  presented  a  minute  to  tlie  governor  hoping  it  was  not 
yet  too  late  to  secure  the  wliole  coast-line  for  Great  Britain. 

All  that  followed  was  simply  the  filling-in  of  details;  the 
great  lines  had  been  drawn.     Germany  was  recognized  as  a  colonial 


104  A  F  RICA 

1883-1884 

fK^wcr.  She  find  nindc  up  licr  mind  to  liave  a  share  of  unoccupied 
Africa:  slie  hail  iniiiatcd  the  scratuhle  by  which  the  lonj^-tic^lcctcd 
continent,  within  the  space  of  a  few  years,  it  might  ahuost  be  said 
months,  became  parceled  out  among  the  powers  of  Europe.  The 
British  Government  and  the  Cape  Government  cannot  afford  to 
cast  stones  at  eadi  other  for  their  con(hict  in  connection  with  Angra 
Peqnena :  the  contemptuous  dog-iii-thc-mangcr  poh'cy  of  tlie  Cape 
autlioritics  did  much  to  arouse  the  wrath  of  Prince  P>ismarck  and 
tlie  German  people  and  to  strengtlien  the  resolve  of  the  former  to 
throw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  colonial  movement.  The 
government  fortunately  yielded  at  last  with  a  good  grace  and  wel- 
comed Germany  as  a  neighbor  in  Africa,  promising  to  do  all  that 
was  friendly  in  promoting  her  colonial  views.  There  was  of  course 
a  great  outcry  among  certain  sections  of  the  British  public  at  what 
had  taken  place:  as  if  the  mere  fact  of  Germany  desiring  to  pos- 
sess colonies  were  an  insult  to  the  British  flag.  As  a  matter  of 
fact.  Great  Britain  emerged  from  an  utterly  unequal  contest  in 
statesmanship  with  considerably  less  of  loss  and  humiliation  than 
might  have  been  expected. 

The  final  scene  in  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  act  in 
the  great  drama  of  German  colonial  enterprise  may  be  said  to  have 
l3ecn  concluded  on  August  7,  1884,  when  Captain  Schering,  of  His 
Imperial  Majestv's  sliip  EUzahctJi,  hoisted  the  imperial  flag  over 
Angra  Peqnena  in  token  of  the  annexation  of  the  coast  and  twenty 
geographical  miles  inland,  from  the  Orange  River  to  26°  south 
latitude.  This  was  followed,  within  the  next  few  days,  by  the 
annexation  in  a  similar  fasliion  of  all  the  coast  between  26°  south 
and  the  Portuguese  boundary,  with  the  exception  of  Walfish  Bay. 


Chapter    X 

GERMANY   IN    THE    CAMEROONS    AND    THE    GULF    OF 

GUINEA.     1884 

IT  has  been  thought  important  to  dwell  at  some  length  on  the 
first  act  in  the  great  drama  of  German  colonization,  because 
the  method  adopted  by  Bismarck  with  respect  to  Angra 
Pequena  was  similar  to  that  followed  in  connection  with  German 
colonial  enterprises  in  other  parts  of  Africa;  and  it  will  therefore 
be  unnecessary  to  deal  with  them  in  so  much  detail.  The  Mowe, 
with  Dr.  Nachtigal  as  imperial  commissioner  and  consul-general 
on  board,  visited  the  coast  in  the  end  of  September,  1884,  and  sup- 
plemented the  work  of  the  Elhaheth  by  raising  more  flags  and 
making  fresh  additions  to  the  German  protectorate.  Liideritz  lost 
no  time  in  sending  out  well-equipped  expeditions  to  explore  the 
country,  open  up  routes  to  the  interior,  discover  the  value  of  its 
mining  resources,  and  make  further  treaties  wMth  chiefs.  Several 
English  firms  asserted  claims  to  the  copper  mines,  and  other  con- 
cessions said  to  have  been  made  by  chiefs,  but  these  did  not  affect 
the  German  supremacy;  a  Joint  Commission  was  appointed  to 
settle  the  claims.  Nachtigal  spent  some  time  in  visiting  various 
chiefs  in  the  interior  and  concluding  treaties,  confirming  the  Ger- 
man claims  to  their  country.  In  a  dispatch  to  the  Cape  Govern- 
ment on  November  1 1  Lord  Derby  found  it  necessary  to  snub 
one  more  hopeless  attempt  on  the  part  of  tlie  colony  to  annex  ter- 
ritory outside  of  Walfish  Bay.  The  Germans  were  not  to  be  inter- 
fered with;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  government  were  inclined 
to  consider  the  advisability  of  annexing  the  Kalahari  Desert,  and 
also  to  maintain  the  route  from  the  Cape  to  the  interior.  At  the 
same  time,  on  December  24,  Prince  Bismarck  was  officially 
informed  that  the  British  Government  had  no  wish  to  make  any 
annexations  west  of  20"^  east  longitude,  which  might  thus  be  re- 
garded as  the  eastern  limit  of  German  Southwest  Africa.  Wiiile 
in  England  itself  these  arrangements  met  with  general  approval, 

105 


106  A  F  RICA 

1S43-1885 

and  even  sjinpathy,  they  naturally  excited  dissatisfaction  at  the 
Cape:  a  dissatisfaction  all  the  more  hitter  that  the  Cape  Govern- 
luent  fc!t  that  it  had  mainly  itself  to  blame  for  what  had  happened. 
Meantime  it  may  l)e  stated  that  it  was  only  in  1884  that  Walfish 
Piav  was  t'lirmally  annexed  to  Cape  Colony,  In  the  spring  of  1885 
I.iidcritz  made  ever  all  his  claims  to  a  German  Southwest  African 
Association;  and  s!n)rtly  thereafter  an  imperial  commissioner  was 
appointed  to  the  new  colony. 

Ilerr  Liuleritz,  flushed,  no  doubt,  with  his  success  on  the  west 
coast,  made,  toward  the  end  of  1884,  a  strenuous  attempt  through 
his  representative  to  flank  British  South  Africa  with  a  German 
c<'loiiy  and  harbor  on  the  east  coast.  The  relations  between  tiie 
Transvaal  Government  and  Germany  were  at  this  time  particularly 
friendly,  and  the  possession  of  a  port  by  Germany  from  which  a 
railway  could  run  to  the  Transvaal  seemed  in  the  highest  degree 
ilesirable.  As  early  as  September.  1884,  propositions  were  made 
to  ol)tain  possession  of  St.  Lucia  Bay  on  the  coast  of  Zululand. 
Piismarck  being  notified  of  the  intention  Liideritz's  agent  entered 
Zululand  in  Xovember.  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  some  conces- 
sions from  Dinizulu.  But  by  this  time  both  the  home  and  the  Cape 
Governments  were  thoroughly  awake.  News  of  these  doings 
leaked  out.  and,  on  December  18.  H.  AI.  S.  Goshazi'k  proceeded  to 
.St.  Lucia  Bay  and  hoisted  the  British  flag  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  with 
Panda  as  far  back  as  1843.  There  was,  of  course,  the  iiicvital)le 
correspondence  between  the  two  governments,  (juestions  in  Par- 
liament, and  excitement  in  the  press,  ending  June  25.  1885,  by  a 
declaration  on  the  part  of  Germany  that  she  would  make  no 
annexations  in  East  Africa  south  of  Delagoa  Bay. 

It  has  been  pointed  (jut  in  a  previous  chapter  that  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth,  and  even  well  on  into  the  nineteenth, 
centuries,  tlie  commercial  activity  of  Euroi)e  in  .Vfrica  was  mainly 
demoted  to  tlie  Guinea  Coast,  to  the  region  extending  from  the 
Scnegrd  to  the  Cong(K  and  that  the  sta])Ic  export  during  that 
peril. (1  consisted  of  slaves.  After  the  cessation  of  slave  export  tlie 
Lur(;j)ean  powers  lo'^t  interest  in  the  region,  'i'he  D.anes  and  Dutch 
fju;ttc(l  it  alt"gei!ier  and  the  I'.nglish  carried  on  their  four  colonies 
in  a  half-hearted  way;  though  the  French,  after  the  middle  of 
the  century,  continued  steadily  to  advance  their  interests  along  the 
coast  and  into  the  interior.  Still,  those  connnercial  houses  which 
cor.linued   to  engage   in  the  trade  of  the   Guinea   Coast    realized 


GULFOFGUINEA  107 

1880-1884 

profits.  In  return  for  a  few  yards  of  cheap  cottons,  a  few  trinkets, 
obsolete  guns,  or  the  vilest  and  cheapest  of  spirits,  enormous  re- 
turns were  obtained  in  oil  and  oil  nuts,  ivory,  gold-dust,  and  other 
native  products.  German  traders  will  grow  rich  where  an  English- 
man would  starve;  after  the  re-formation  of  the  empire  they  de- 
veloped increasing  activity  abroad  and  did  not  overlook  the  neg- 
lected west  coast.  Fifty  years  ago  German  and  Swiss  missions 
established  themselves  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  and  German  commer- 
cial houses  had  agencies  in  the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony.  After 
1880,  however,  when  the  colonial  spirit  was  gaining  in  strength 
and  German  foreign  trade  was  increasing  by  leaps  and  bounds,  the 
relations  of  Germany  with  the  coast  became  more  and  more  inti- 
mate. Between  the  district  on  the  west  coast,  known  as  Portu- 
guese Guinea,  and  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  lies  a  strip 
of  coast  now  known  as  French  Guinea.  On  this  coast  several 
German  factories  had  been  established  and  a  considerable  trade 
developed  by  1884.  One  patch  of  this  coast  lying  between  the 
Dembra  and  Dubreka  Rivers  was  supposed  not  to  have  been  actually 
occupied  by  France,  and  there  German  operations  were  concen- 
trated and  German  influence  established.  On  the  Lower  Guinea 
Coast  extending  from  the  boundary  of  Liberia  to  the  colony  of 
Lagos  were  several  regions  which  were  regarded  as  no-man's-land ; 
France  had  ancient  claims  to  a  part  of  the  coast  on  the  west  of 
the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony,  and  two  other  patches,  somewhat 
ill-defined,  between  that  colony  and  the  colony  of  Lagos.  At 
various  points  on  this  stretch  of  coast,  both  in  British  and  French 
spheres,  German  factories  and  German  missions  had  been  estab- 
lished. 

There  was  one  small  district  of  some  thirty  miles  on  the 
east  of  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  where  German  stations  had  been 
established  since  1880,  and  trade  treaties  made  with  the  native 
chiefs.  On  the  east  of  these,  at  Agoue  and  Great  Popo,  similar 
enterprises  had  been  carried  out ;  for  although  the  French  had 
some  old  claims  to  the  coast  it  was  practically  unoccupied.  When, 
in  1883,  German  colonial  enterprise  began  to  take  a  distinctly  prac- 
tical turn,  German  factories  and  commercial  agents,  as  well  as 
trade  consuls,  had  been  established,  not  only  on  the  British  Gold 
Coast,  but  on  the  unannexed  portions  to  the  east.  Here,  and  in 
other  parts  of  Africa,  England  had  only  to  put  out  her  hand  and 
take  what  territory  she  wanted ;    her  colonial  officials  were  being 


103 


AFRICA 


1879-1884 


cinistantly  l^csictrcd  bv  petitions  from  native  cliiefs  for  annexation. 
lUu  it  was  only  wIumi  the  (Icrniaiis  entered  the  lickl  and  the  prof- 
lercil  gifts  scenicil  hkely  to  he  snatched  by  others  that  British  eyes 
were  opencil  to  their  value,  and  British  hands  made  nnseemly  haste 
to  snatch  thciii. 

Again,  between  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  colony  of  Lagos 
and  tl'.e  l'"rcnch  colonv  of  the  Gaboon  (the  Kio  Canipo),  including 
the  extensive  Niger  tlelta    (the  Oil   Rivers)    and  the  Cameroons, 


Gernian  houses  had  been  establishing-  factories  and  drawing  to 
tlieinselves  a  fair  share  of  trade.  The  British  connection  with  the 
rcgiim  had  been  grtjwing  in  closeness  and  importance  for  a  century. 
British  exjildrers  had  done  more  than  those  of  any  other  nation 
to  ojK-n  uj)  the  C'last  rcc^ion  antl  the  whole  of  the  country  watered 
by  tlie  Xi.Ljcr  and  r,ciuu'.  In  the  Oil  Rivers  and  the  Cameroons 
Piritisli  niN-ji  .narics  and  traders  had  held  supreme  influence  for 
many  year-,  and  r.\cr  fortv  vears  ago  Burton  raised  the  British 
flag  on  the  magnificent  Camercjons  Mountains.  For  years  the  chiefs 
along  the  ca'-t  had  been  petitioning-  British  consuls,  ministers, 
and  even  the  (|uecn  lierself.  I  >  take  them  under  protection;  but, 
as  a  rule,  these  [)etitions  w  ere  unanswered.    So  long  ago  as  August, 


GULFOFGUINEA  109 

1879-1884 

1879,  five  of  the  Cameroons  "  kings  "  wrote  as  follows  to  Queen 
Victoria : 

"  We,  your  servants,  have  joined  together  and  thought  it 
better  to  write  you  a  nice  long  letter  which  will  tell  you  about 
all  our  wishes.  We  wish  to  have  your  laws  in  our  territories.  We 
want  to  have  every  fashion  altered ;  also  we  will  do  according 
to  your  consul's  word.  Plenty  wars  here  in  our  country.  Plenty 
murder,  and  plenty  idol-worshipers.  Perhaps  these  lines  of  our 
writing  will  look  to  you  as  an  idle  tale.  We  have  spoken  to  the 
English  consul  plenty  of  times  about  having  an  English  Govern- 
ment here.  We  never  have  answer  from  you,  so  we  wish  to  write 
to  you  ourselves.  When  we  knew  about  Calabar  River,  how  they 
have  all  English  laws  in  their  towns,  and  how  they  have  put  away 
all  their  superstitions,  oh,  we  shall  be  very  glad  to  be  like  Calabar 
River." 

Communications  of  similar  import  and  tone  continued  to  be 
sent  home;  and  from  the  English  residents  in  the  Cameroons, 
backed  by  the  British  consul,  urgent  requests  were  sent  to  the 
home  government  advising  annexation.  But  until  the  information 
reached  the  Foreign  Office  in  July,  1883,  that  a  French  vessel  had 
been  in  the  Kwa  Kwa  River  and  the  Malimba  River  cajoling  the 
native  chiefs  into  signing  treaties,  the  policy  of  the  government  was 
one  of  procrastination.  Even  then  no  haste  was  manifested  in 
securing  one  of  the  most  desirable  regions  on  the  west  coast.  It 
was  only  in  the  end  of  1883  that  the  Foreign  and  Colonial  Offices 
concluded  between  them  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  place  the 
Oil  Rivers  and  the  Cameroons,  including  tlie  Baptist  mission  that 
had  been  established  there  for  many  years,  under  British  protection. 
It  was  not  until  May  16,  1884,  that  Consul  Hewett  was  instructed 
to  return  to  his  post  in  West  Africa  and  make  preparations  for  de- 
claring a  British  protectorate  over  part  of  it,  for  the  Cameroons 
chiefs  were  to  be  "  asked  to  undertake  that  they  will,  if  required. 
cede  such  portions  of  their  territories  as  it  may  be  thought  desirable 
to  acquire."  On  July  6  Consul  Hewett  was  in  the  Bonny  River. 
He  purposed  visiting  the  Benin  and  other  rivers,  as  well  as  the 
Cameroons,  but  could  not  give  the  commander  of  the  British  vessel 
in  which  he  was  to  sail  any  exact  date  for  his  visit. 

Meanwhile  the  Germans  were  losing  no  time.  Tlie  recom- 
mendations of  the  Hamburg  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  the  end  of 
1883  hsve  been  already  referred  to.     The  annexation  of  a  part  of 


no  AFRICA 

1684 

the  coast  opposite  Femnndo  Po  was  part  of  tlie  progframme  which 
they  rccomniciulctl  to  Hismarck.  On  April  20,  ICS84,  about  one 
month  bet\>rc  Consul  Hewctt  received  his  instructions,  Lord  Gran- 
ville at  tiic  I'oreitrn  OtVice  received  the  following  communication 
from  the  German  cliari^c  d'afTaires  in  London: 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  stale  to  your  Lordship  that  the  imperial 
consul-general.  i)r.  Xacluigal,  has  been  commissioned  by  my 
government  to  visit  the  west  coast  of  Africa  in  the  course  of  the 
next  few  months  in  order  to  complete  the  information  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  T^oreign  Office  at  Berlin  on  the  state  of  German 
confmerce  on  that  coast.  With  this  object  Dr.  Nachtigal  will 
shortly  embark  at  Lisbon  on  Ixiard  the  g^niboat  Mozvc.  He  will 
put  himself  into  communication  with  the  authorities  in  the  Eng- 
lish possessions  on  the  said  coast,  and  is  authorized  to  conduct, 
on  behalf  of  the  im])crial  government,  negotiations  connected  with 
certain  ([ucstions.  I  venture,  in  accordance  with  my  instructions, 
to  beg  your  excellency  to  be  so  good  as  to  cause  the  authorities  in 
tlie  llritisii  possessions  in  West  Africa  to  be  furnished  with  suitable 
recommendations."  The  charge  d'affaires  was  assured  that  the 
Britisli  coloni;il  authorities  should  be  enjoined  to  give  all  possible 
assistance  to  the  eminent  German  consul-general. 

On  June  i.  1S84,  the  Mozi'C,  with  Dr.  Xachtigal  on  board, 
accompanied  by  tlic  LUizabcfJi,  anchored  off  the  Los  Islands  (Brit- 
ish), and  two  days  later  the  German  consul-general  went  in  a 
steam  piniiace  to  the  Dubreka  River,  where  German  factories  had 
been  estabHsb.ed.  Palavers  were  held  with  the  chiefs,  but  notliing 
definite  was  done,  as  tliere  was  a  suspicion  of  French  claims.  Other 
German  expeditions  were,  however,  in  the  following  months  sent 
to  the  coast,  aiul  the  German  flag  was  even  hoisted  over  the  station. 
But  on  the  representations  of  the  hVench  Government  Prince  Bis- 
marck gracefully  gave  way  here,  as  he  did  elsewhere,  averring  that 
he  would  nc\"C'r  seek  to  encroach  on  any  territory  to  which  l*" ranee 
might  show  the  slightest  claim,  or  e\-cn  preference.  Bismarck's 
delicacy  triward  h'rench  susceptiljilities  was  in  all  these  doings  and 
negotiations  in  marked  contrast  to  his  bluff  and  uncompromising 
treatment  of  the  P.ritish  Government. 

Xacliti.L^al  proceeded  southward  to  the  little  district  cast  of 
the  G'ild  (."oast,  already  referrerl  to.  .and  now  known  as  Togolrmd. 
At  eight  different  i)laccs  r.n  this  coast  there  were  Germ.an  factories. 
In  January.  18S4,  a  German  gunb(jat  had  touched  at  the  coast  and 


GULFOFGUINEA  111 

1884 

taught  the  natives  that  Germans  as  well  as  the  English  had  big 
ships  to  look  after  their  interests ;  some  of  the  natives,  indeed,  were 
deported  to  Berlin  and  were  brought  back,  doubtless,  greatly  im- 
pressed with  the  power  of  Germany,  On  July  2  the  Mowe,  with 
Dr.  Nachtigal  on  board,  drew  up  in  front  of  the  settlement  of 
Little  Popo.  Other  places  were  visited,  and  after  arranging  mat- 
ters with  the  king  of  Togoland,  the  German  flag  was  raised 
at  Bagida  on  July  5  and  Togoland  declared  a  German  protectorate. 
Other  sections  of  the  coast  were  annexed  at  later  dates.  Serious 
differences  threatened  to  arise  between  Germany  and  France,  the 
latter  claiming  sovereignty  over  certain  parts  within  the  sphere 
annexed  by  Germany;  but  the  two  governments,  however,  did  not 
find  much  difficulty  in  coming  to  an  agreement. 

After  placing  Togoland  under  the  protection  of  the  German 
flag,  Dr.  Nachtigal  steamed  onward  in  the  Mdi<je  toward  the 
Cameroons.  Here  the  ground  had  been  prepared  for  him.  At 
midnight-meetings  with  King  Bell  and  other  potentates  in  the 
Cameroons  River,  the  four  German  traders  settled  in  the  place 
succeeded  in  winning  their  way  to  the  heart  of  these  thirsty  chiefs 
by  lavish  promises  of  rum,  guns,  and  money.  As  these  chiefs  had 
received  no  replies  from  the  British  Government  to  their  repeated 
requests  for  annexation,  and  as  the  Germans  appealed  to  their 
weakest  side,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  concluded  that  a  bird  in 
the  hand  was  worth  two  in  the  bush.  Commander  Moore,  in  the 
Goshawk,  visited  the  Cameroons  River  on  July  10  and  had  a 
palaver  with  King  Bell  and  some  of  the  other  chiefs.  He  found 
that  the  German  negotiations  were  far  advanced,  but  that  no  treaty 
had  been  actually  signed.  Had  Consul  Hewett  been  on  board  and 
then  and  there  concluded  treaties  with  the  chiefs,  the  Cameroons 
might  have  fallen  to  England,  All  Commander  Moore  could  do 
was  to  beg  the  chiefs  to  sign  nothing  till  the  consul  arrived.  King 
Bell  promised,  but  hoped  the  consul  would  come  soon — "  within 
a  week."  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  iQth  that  the  consul  ar- 
rived, to  find  that  treaties  had  been  comj^Ieted  with  the  chiefs  by 
Nachtigal,  and  that  the  German  flag  had  been  floating  conspicu- 
ously over  the  place  for  five  days.  All  he  could  do  was  to  place  the 
mission  station  of  Victoria  in  Ambas  Bay  under  British  protec- 
tion. Nachtigal  proceeded  southward,  raising  the  German  flag 
over  various  points  of  tlie  coast,  even  beyond  the  Rio  Campo,  and 
so  intruding  upon  the  h'rcnch  sphere.     As  Bismarck,  however,  was 


11«  AFRICA 

1884 

always  inclined  in  iiis  search  for  colonics  to  be  particularly  com- 
placent towaiil  I'Vance.  the  dirtkulty  was  easily  settled:  and  the 
Rio  C'anipo  was  recognized  as  the  southern-  limit  of  German  an- 
nexatii>n. 

Meantime  Consul  Hcwett  had  been  thoroughly  roused  to  the 
seriousness  nf  the  situation,  and  lost  no  time  in  making  treaties 
along  the  const  between  Victoria  and  the  colony  of  Lagos,  His 
action  was  supplemented  by  tiiat  of  the  Niger  Company,  and  thus 
the  Oil  Rivers  and  the  moutiis  of  the  Niger  were  secured  to  Great 
Hritnin.  There  was,  of  course,  great  excitetnent  both  in  England 
and  Germany.  There  was  naturally  jubilation  in  Germany  over 
the  success  of  the  smart  policy  of  Bismarck,  while  in  England  re- 
pnx'iches  were  freely  hcajied  upon  the  Ministry  of  the  time  for 
their  blindness,  prevarication,  and  indifference  to  British  interests. 
Lord  Granville  na'ivciv  reproached  Prince  Bismarck  for  intention- 
ally misleading  him  as  to  the  real  purpose  of  Dr.  Nachtigal's  mis- 
sion, while  Bismarck  taunted  Granville  for  his  want  of  penetra- 
tion, and  nru'ntained  that  his  little  ruse  was  perfectly  justifiable. 
Had  he  frankly  informed  the  British  Government  as  to  his  designs, 
they  would  of  course  have  done  their  best  to. forestall  him. 

As  to  tlie  part  played  by  Prince  Bismarck,  his  attitude  with 
respect  to  the  Cameroons  was  in  marked  contrast  to  his  seemingly 
forbearing,  patient,  and  courteous  conduct  in  the  Angra  Pequena 
affair.  Possibly  that  affair  may  have  worn  out  his  patience,  or  it 
may  be  thai  he  valued  the  Cameroons  more  highly,  and  did  not 
want  to  run  any  risk.  Eurther,  the  prince  considered  that  in  his 
colcjpjal  aspirations  in  Africa  and  the  South  Seas  he  had  received 
great  i)r(A-ocation  fr(jm  England.  The  courtesy  between  Erance 
and  Germany  in  connection  with  these  operations  was  that  of  enemy 
t'  enemy:  the  bitterness  which  sprang  up  between  England  and 
Germany  was  probably  due  to  the  mutual  feeling  that  the  one  side 
c.juld  not  afford  to  make  an  enemy  of  the  other. 

'Ihougli  I'.ngland  had  to  give  up  the  whole  coast  at  the  base 
of  the  Caniero.  ins  Mountains  as  far  as  the  Rio  del  Rev — Bisinarck 
accused  her  of  trying  to  shut  out  the  new  German  colony  from  the 
interior — she  was  able  to  secure  the  whole  of  the  Niger  Delta  and 
all  the  const  from  the  Rio  del  Rey  to  the  boundary  of  Lagos.  Ger- 
many had  some  trouble  witii  King  Bell  and  his  friends  before  they 
became  reconciled  to  the  new  state  of  things:  and,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  mn<[  <>\  (Germany's  colonial  cntcrj)rises,  one  of  her  first  tasks 


GULFOFGUINEA  113 

1884 

was  to  give  the  chiefs  and  people  a  "  sharp  lesson."  By  the  time 
the  Berlin  Conference  met  she  was  fairly  in  possession  at  the 
Cameroons,  as  well  as  in  Togoland  and  Southwest  Africa.  She 
had  thus  begun  the  "  scramble  for  Africa,"  had  entered  upon  that 
game,  some  rules  for  which  it  was  partly  the  design  of  the  Congress 
to  lay  down. 


Chapter   XI 


THE    HERLIN    CONFERENCE    AND    THE    CONGO    FREE 

STATE.     1 884- 1 910 

FOLLOW'IXG  the  example  of  Germany,  the  other  great 
luir.ipcaii  powers  made  a  rush  upon  Africa.  Inextricable 
(lilTicultics  were  sure  to  arise  unless  some  rules  were  laid 
down  on  which  tlie  £^reat  game  of  appropriation  was  to  be  con- 
ducted. Gcrniany  had  already  made  important  acquisitions  on  the 
west  coast,  and  luigland  and  France  had  made  haste  to  snatch  up 
the  remainder.  France  and  Portugal  were  struggling  with  the 
King  of  the  Belgians  on  the  Congo,  while  Portugal  was  beginning 
to  be  alarmed  as  to  her  claims  on  other  parts  of  the  continent. 
Great  liritain  had  received  a  se\'ere  lesson  at  Angra  Pequena,  and 
had  at  last  been  aroused  to  take  measures  for  securing  to  herself  the 
region  which  lies  on  the  north  of  Cajie  Colony.  Already  there 
were  agitations  as  to  German  interests  in  Zan;^ibar.  The  great 
struggle,  however,  it  was  seen,  would  be  round  the  center  of  the 
cimtinent,  and  it  would  be  for  the  advantage  of  all  concerned  that 
an  understanding  should  be  reached  as  to  whether  it  was  to  be 
divided  uj)  into  exclusive  sections,  or  whether  it  was  to  be  open  to 
all  nationalities,  whatever  might  be  their  share  of  the  rest  of  the 
continent  after  the  scramble  was  over. 

CuriMu.^ly  enough  the  proposal  for  an  International  Confer- 
ence to  Consider  the  whole  cpiestion  of  the  Congo  came  from  Portu- 
gal i;er-elf.  I'Yance  indorsed  the  proposal,  which  was  cordially 
takei:  up  by  I>i~inarck  on  behalf  of  Germany.  This  was  in  June, 
1S84.  and  a  niontii  later  Lord  Granville  gave  in  his  adhesion  on 
behalf  oi  (irc.it  Hritain.  These  three  ])owers  agreed  in  principle 
to  the  creari  >ii  of  a  Imtc  State  in  the  basin  of  the  Congo,  the  i)re- 
cise  l:mit;ition>  of  wliicli  were,  however,  to  be  left  to  separate 
agreements  between  the  powers  directly  interested.  The  great 
pur[)i  -e  th(.n  ot  the  Ilcrlin  CVtiiference  was  to  c(;me  to  an  under- 
standing v.  ith  rei'cTcncc  to  the  Congo  basin.  It  was  also  agreed 
to  make  some  arrangement  with  reference  to  the  Niger,  and  to  fix 

Hi 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  115 

1884-1885 

the  conditions  under  which  new  annexations  would  be  recognized 
as  vahd  by  other  powers. 

Into  the  details  of  the  Conference  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter. 
Its  discussions  and  protocols  occupy  a  voluminous  Blue  Book.  It 
began  its  meetings  in  Berlin  on  November  15,  1884,  and  concluded 
them  on  January  30,  1885.  Every  state  of  Europe,  except  Swit- 
zerland, sent  one  or  more  representatives,  as  did  the  United  States 
of  America.  The  General  Act  of  the  Conference  was  signed  by 
the  representatives  of  all  the  powers  except  the  United  States  on 
February  24,  1885.  Stanley  was  present,  nominally  as  a  geograph- 
ical expert  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  but  in  reality  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  his  patron,  the  King  of  the  Belgians. 

The  General  Act  of  the  Conference  enacted  freedom  of  trade 
to  all  nations  within  the  region  watered  by  the  Congo  and  its 
affluents,  including  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  from  2°  30"  north  lati- 
tude to  8°  south  latitude.  The  Free  Trade  Line  was  further  pro- 
longed to  the  east  coast  at  5°  north  latitude,  and  down  that  coast 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Zambezi ;  up  the  Zambezi  to  five  miles  about 
the  mouth  of  the  Shire,  and  onward  along  the  water-parting  be- 
tween the  Zambezi  and  Lake  Nyasa  to  the  water-parting  between 
the  Zambezi  and  the  Congo.  This  eastern  extension,  however,  was 
only  to  be  effective  if  agreed  to  by  the  sovereign  states  having 
jurisdiction  in  the  regions  included  therein.  Only  such  dues  were 
to  be  levied  as  would  compensate  expenditure  in  the  interests  of 
trade;  no  diffential  duties  were  permitted,  and  all  rivers  were  to 
be  free  to  the  flags  of  all  nations.  After  a  lapse  of  twenty  years 
the  subject  of  import  duties  could  be  reconsidered.  The  powers 
were  to  combine  to  suppress  tlie  slave-trade  and  slavery.  An  Inter- 
national Navigation  Commission  was  instituted  to  ensure  facilities 
of  navigation  on  the  Congo,  and  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the 
Conference  with  reference  to  the  river  and  its  affluents.  This  con- 
ventional basin  of  the  Congo  was  to  remain  neutral  under  all  cir- 
cumstances. Only  certain  fixed  navigation  dues  were  to  be  charged, 
and  these  could  be  revised  at  the  end  of  five  years.  These  then  were 
the  principal  provisions  with  regard  to  the  Congo. 

Essentially  the  same  conditions  as  regards  navigation  were 
applied  to  the  Niger  nnd  its  trii)utaries,  although  these  regions  were 
outside  tlic  operation  of  the  rules  affecting  the  free  trade  zone. 
Instead  of  an  International  Commission  l^eing  appointed  to  carry 
out  the  conditions,  their  execution  was  intrusted  to  Great  Britain 


116  AFRICA 

1876-1884 

ami  France  in  respect  to  those  sections  of  the  river  which  might 
come  under  their  sovereignty  or  protection.  There  was  to  he  per- 
fect freetlom  of  navigation  to  tlie  trading  ships  (not  the  warsliips) 
of  all  nations;  '*  Xo  exclusive  privilege  of  navigation  will  he  con- 
cedeil  to  companies,  corjiorations,  or  private  pcrscMis."  The  navi- 
gation of  the  Niger  was  not  to  he  "exposed  to  any  ohligation  in 
regard  to  landing-stage  or  depot,  or  for  l)reaking  hulk  or  for  coni- 
pulsorv  cntrv  into  any  pt>rt."'  At  the  same  time  it  was  to  he  un- 
derstotnl  "  that  nttthing  in  these  ohligations  shall  he  interpreted 
as  hindering  Great  Britain  from  making  any  rules  of  navigation 
whatever  which  shall  not  be  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  their  en- 
gagements." 

Other  declarations  were  included  in  the  work  of  this  remark- 
able congress:  it  laid  down  the  following  important  rule  which  was 
to  guide  the  powers  in  the  great  game  of  the  partition  of  Africa : 
occupations  on  the  coast  of  Africa  in  order  to  be  valid  must  be 
effective,  and  any  new  occupation  on  the  coast  must  be  formally 
notified  to  the  Signatory  Powers  for  the  pui"pose  of  enabling  them, 
if  need  he,  to  make  good  any  claim  of  their  own.  In  Article  6  there 
is  also  notice  made  for  the  first  time  in  any  International  Act  of  the 
obligation  attaching  to  spheres  of  influence — a  mode  of  tenure  soon 
destined  to  play  such  an  important  part.  This  obligation,  however, 
refers  only  to  the  region  dealt  with  in  the  General  Act  of  the  Con- 
ference. 

These,  then,  were  the  chief  provisions  of  the  famous  "  General 
Act  of  the  Conference  of  Berlin."  To  what  extent  they  have  been 
carried  out  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel.  But  while  the  main  drama, 
if  we  may  so  speak,  was  being  enacted  in  the  conference  hall. 
Prince  Bismarck's  palace,  there  was  a  complicated  side-i)lay  going 
(  n.  which,  thougli  not  formally  acknowledged,  had  very  intimate 
bearings  c^n  the  main  subject,  and  was  indeed  pregnant  with  even 
greater  results.  This  was.  in  fact,  the  creation  of  the  Congo  hVee 
State.  We  have  seen  how  the  magnificent  projects  initiated  by 
the  King  of  the  Belgians  at  the  Tirussels  Conference  of  1876  had 
rapidly  devclnped.  'i^iere  was  the  Intcrnatifinal  African  Associa- 
ti  in  for  scientific  and  benevolent  purposes:  this  was  followed  by  the 
C  omitc  d'I'.tudes.  whicli  became  the  International  Congo  Associa- 
tion. Althougli  ]v>\  actii.'illv  recognized  as  such,  it  really  assumed 
the  form  di  a  iM'.-dy-organized  state,  and  as  early  as  April.  1884, 
Sir  Francis  de  W'intun  (failing  General  Gordon)  went  out  as  gov- 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  117 

1884-1887 

ernor.  On  April  22,  1884,  the  United  States  Government 
recognized  the  flag  of  the  Association  (a  blue  flag  with  a  golden 
star)  "  as  that  of  a  friendly  government."  On  the  day  after  the 
recognition,  in  a  moment  of  irritation  against  the  British  Govern- 
ment, Colonel  Strauch,  the  president  of  the  Association,  intimated 
to  the  French  Government  that  if  the  Association  were  ever  com- 
pelled to  part  with  its  possessions,  France  should  have  the  right  of 
preemption.  On  April  22,  1887,  the  foreign  minister  of  the  Congo 
Free  State,  writing  to  the  French  Minister  at  Brussels,  pointed  out 
that  His  Majesty  reserved  his  right  to  make  Belgium  his  heir  so 
far  as  the  Free  State  was  concerned,  though  in  that  case  Belgium 
would  take  over  the  obligation  to  give  France  the  right  of  preemp- 
tion should  she  ever  decide  to  part  with  the  territories  of  the  Free 
State.  As  to  the  contention  that  such  an  arrangement  is  invalid 
without  the  consent  of  the  signatory  powers  to  the  Berlin  Act, 
it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  various  international  arrange- 
ments recognizing  the  Congo  Free  State  were  made  after  the  King 
of  the  Belgians  accorded  the  right  of  preemption  to  France.  This 
right  of  preemption  was  notified  to  the  various  powers  by  the 
French  Government,  through  its  representative,  in  a  dispatch  dated 
May  31,  1884.  There  is  no  evidence  that  this  right  was  ever  ex- 
plicitly recognized  by  the  powers,  and  therefore  its  validity  is  a 
question  to  be  settled  by  international  law. 

A  week  before  the  Berlin  Conference  met  Germany  followed 
the  example  of  the  United  States,  and  recognized  the  flag  of  the 
Association  as  that  of  a  friendly  state,  and  intimated  her  readiness 
to  recognize  the  frontiers  of  the  new  state  to  be  created  as  laid 
down  in  a  map  joined  to  the  declaration.  The  map  indicated  the 
boundaries  of  the  state  in  the  main  as  they  were  subsequently  ac- 
cepted by  France  and  Portugal.  This  declaration  was  followed  by 
similar  declarations  on  the  part  of  the  other  powers,  the  last  to  give 
its  adhesion  being  Belgium  (February  23,  1885).  The  Association 
itself  signed  the  General  Act  as  an  independent  power.  The  various 
agreements  in  which  the  Association  had  been  recognized  and  the 
delimitations  embodied  therein  were  included  in  the  protocols  of 
the  final  sitting,  and  so  received  the  sanction  of  the  Conference 
itself. 

It  was  not  till  two  niontlis  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Confer- 
ence (April  30.  1885)  that  tlie  liclgian  legislature  autliorized  King 
Leopold  to  be  the  chief  of  the  state  founded  in  Africa  by  the  Congo 


118 


AFRICA 


1885-1890 


International  Association.  "  The  union  between  Belgium  and  the 
new  state  will  be  exclusively  personal."  On  August  i  following, 
King  Ixopold  addressed  a  notification  to  all  of  the  powers, 
intimating  that  tiie  possessions  of  the  International  Association  of 
the  Congo  were  henceforth  to  form  the  Congo  h^ree  State,  of  which 


^^'-Xt^£X^, 


^\ 


ATFaCA. 

COMFCR£>JCE. 
E2Z2  GREAT  BRlTAJN 
t.\\'V]  GCAMANY 
E5I3  PORTUSAL. 
ITAL.V 
rRANCC 
SPAJKt 


VWMTISM    BAY 


-^zz^l 


he  would  1)C  cliief  under  tlie  title  of  sovereign.  At  the  same  time 
the  neutrality  of  the  state  was  declared.  It  may  be  appropriate  here 
to  state  tiiat  King  Lcojjold  in  his  will,  dated  August  2.  i^cSq,  made 
liclgium  heir  to  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Congo  J'^rce  State;  by  a 
codicil  to  ihe  will,  dated  July  21,  1890,  it  is  declared  that  the  Free 
State  canu'.t  be  alienated. 

Here,  then,  wc  lia\e  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  sub- 
stantial result  of  the  scramble   for  Africa.     It   was  not,  however. 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  119 

1890-1894 

until  many  conferences,  negotiations,  and  compromises  had  taken 
place  that  the  precise  Hmits  of  the  Free  State  claimed  in  1885  were 
recognized  by  neighboring  powers.  Portugal  still  clung  to  5°  12' 
south  latitude  as  her  northern  limit,  but  was  compelled  to  abandon 
it  and  content  herself  with  Molemba,  Cabinda,  and  Massabi 
north  of  the  Congo  mouth.  On  the  other  hand,  her  Angola  colony 
was  pushed  northward  to  the  south  bank  of  the  Congo,  which  she 
was  allowed  to  appropriate  as  far  as  Nokki,  130  miles  from  the 
mouth.  The  precise  boundary  of  the  Congo  State  with  British  ter- 
ritory was  at  length  settled  in  the  agreement  between  King  Leopold 
and  Great  Britain  on  May  12,  1894;  and  it  was  only  after  the  solu- 
tion of  many  difficult  geographical  points  that  the  northern  limit 
was  settled  with  France.  These  agreements  give  the  Congo  Free 
State  the  enormous  area  of  900,000  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation which  at  a  guess  may  amount  to  30,000,000  of  savages. 

Recently  the  sovereign  of  the  Free  State  has  shown  dissatis- 
faction with  the  4°  limit  on  the  north,  maintaining  that  this  state, 
like  any  other  state,  is  at  liberty  to  extend  its  dominions.  Both 
France  and  England  at  first  strenuously  objected  to  this  where  it 
affected  them.  But  expeditions  from  the  Congo  were  sent  with  a 
view  to  secure  a  block  on  the  west  of  the  Albert  Nyanza  and  the 
Nile.  These  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign  of  this  Free 
State  to  push  beyond  the  4°  north  led  to  serious  complications.  As 
will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  British  East  Africa,  circumstances 
compelled  the  British  Government  to  accept  the  situation,  and  an 
agreement  was  concluded  in  May,  1894,  by  which  the  old  Sudan 
province  of  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  up  to  10°  north  latitude,  and  the  whole 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  down  to  Mahagi  on  the  northwest  shore 
of  Albert  Nyanza,  were  leased  to  the  Congo  Free  State  and  the 
King  of  the  Belgians,  who  in  turn  leased  to  Great  Britain  a  strip 
between  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Albert  Edward,  and  consented  to 
certain  readjustments  on  the  northwest  frontier  of  British  Central 
Africa.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  arrangements  did  not 
commend  themselves  to  either  France  or  Germany.  On  the  demand 
of  the  latter,  Great  Britain  resigned  the  lease  of  the  strip  on  the 
eastern  frontier  of  tlie  I'^rcc  State;  and  in  .August,  1894,  the  astute 
King  Lco])old  made  an  arrangement  witli  France  by  which  he  ac- 
(|iiire(l  all  he  really  wanted,  free  access  to  the  Nile  and  the  rounding 
off  of  his  northern  frrMitier  by  a  natural  b(jundary. 

Great  things  were  expected  from  the  foundation  of  the  Free 


120  AFRICA 

1890-1894 

State,  whicli  was  referred  to  at  the  time  as  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able events  of  the  century.  At  tlie  concUidinp:  sitting^  of  the  Confer- 
ence the  new  i)rs;ani/ation  was  jii^rceted  as  one  of  tlie  great  civilizing 
and  humanitarian  at^encies  of  the  nineteenth  century,  as  the  chief 
medium  through  wliich  the  work  for  wliich  the  Conference  had  been 
summoned  would  be  carried  out.  The  Free  State  was  to  be  the 
model  boy  in  the  new  African  school.  He  was  never  to  go  beyond 
bounds:  he  was  never  to  interfere  with  his  neighbors;  never  to  bully 
the  weaker  boys  under  him. 

The  great  object  for  which  professedly  the  International  Congo 
Association  had  been  founded  was  the  opening  up  of  the  interior 
region  included  in  its  operations  to  civilization  and  commerce,  as 
well  as  the  exploration  of  its  geography.  As  has  been  already  said, 
we  cannot  doubt  that  the  motives  which  actuated  the  King  of  the 
Belgians  in  entering  upon  this  enterprise  in  Africa  were  to  a  certain 
extent  disinterested.  If  to  these  motives  in  time  there  came  to  be 
added  an  ambition  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  million  square  miles  of  a 
continent  previously  given  over  to  savagery  and  anarchy,  this  am- 
bition was  legitimate,  for  he  could  only  reap  glory  and  lasting  repu- 
tation by  ruling  well.  He  it  was  who  until  quite  recently  supplied 
tlie  funds  with  which  the  enterprise  was  carried  on.  and  notwith- 
standing the  increase  from  other  sources,  his  private  purse  is  still 
opened  to  the  extent  of  $200,000  annually.  It  is  not.  therefore, 
surprising  that  the  king  should  wish  to  rule  his  own  state  in  his 
own  way.  even  though  its  international  character  should  thus  dis- 
appear, and  Belgium  be  accorded  favors  not  granted  to  other  na- 
tionalities. As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  King  Leopold  assumed  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Free  State  it  ceased  to  he  international,  and 
rapidly  became  an  almost  exclusively  Belgian  undertaking.  The 
officials  of  other  nationalities  gave  place  with  few  exceptions  to  the 
Belgians.  In  tliis  King  Leopold  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
wishes  and  remonstrances  of  his  Furopean  subjects.  It  was  found, 
moreover,  tliat  the  absolute  freedom  of  trade  insisted  on  in  the 
Ijerlin  Act  could  not  be  maintained:  even  Flis  Majesty's  large  re- 
sources were  not  equal  to  the  necessary  expenses  of  administration, 
and  duties  and  taxes  have  had  to  be  imposed  which  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  consistent  with  the  spirit  or  the  letter  of  the  act.  Of  the 
heavy  duty  which  has  been  [)laccd  on  spirits  none  but  those  inter- 
ested in  their  sale  v.ill  coini)lain.  IhU,  however  it  is  to  be  accounted 
for.  there  can  he  little  doubt  that  the  manner  in  which  the  imjjosition 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  121 

1895-1899 

of  duties  and  taxes  was  carried  out,  and  the  keen  competition  on 
the  part  of  the  Belgian  officials,  and  even  of  the  state,  with  traders 
of  other  nationalities,  had  the  effect  of  compelling  many  of  the 
latter  to  leave  the  territory  of  the  state,  either  quitting  the  Congo 
entirely  or  settling  upon  French  or  Portuguese  territory.  It  is 
chiefly  Germany  that  has  made  complaints  against  the  state  for 
the  alleged  violation  of  the  free-trade  provisions  under  which  the 
state  was  constituted.  It  would  be  unjust  to  blame  the  king  per- 
sonally for  these  results ;  he  is  in  the  hands  of  his  officials,  and  it  is 
hardly  to  be  expected  that  these  are  all  imbued  with  the  same 
motives  which  actuate  him.^  Besides  a  company  for  constructing  a 
railway  for  the  Lower  Congo,  past  the  cataracts  to  Stanley  Pool, 
there  were,  in  1895,  five  trading  companies  on  the  Congo,  all  Bel- 
gian, with  a  nominal  capital  of  about  $1,800,000;  at  the  end  of  1899 
there  were  sixty-five  Belgian  Colonial  Societies,  with  a  capital  of 
over  $49,000,000.  These  Belgian  companies  were  for  a  time  dealt 
with  in  much  the  same  way  as  traders  of  foreign  nationality.  The 
restrictions  placed  on  the  trade  of  private  companies,  and  the  monop- 
olies claimed  by  the  "  State,"  were  such  as  to  render  private  enter- 
prise almost  impossible.  Some  relaxation  was  found  to  be  necessary, 
and  a  modus  vivcndi  was  devised  which  gave  the  companies  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  liberty.  Hitherto,  however,  their  operations  have 
been  of  a  very  limited  character,  partly  due  to  the  difficulties  placed 
in  the  way  by  the  Arab  traders. 

More  recently  the  conduct  of  the  Free  State  officers  roused 
some  of  the  powerful  Arab  traders  to  rebellion.  The  expedition  un- 
der Van  der  Kerckhoven  dealt  summarily  with  the  Arab  slavers  met 
with  on  its  route.  This  alarmed  the  Arabs  on  the  Upper  Congo 
and  Lake  Tanganyika,  who  evidently  feared  that  unless  they  made 
a  stand  their  nefarious  traffic  would  be  seriously  checked.  The 
result  was  an  attempt  of  the  Arabs  to  rise  against  the  whites.  No 
doubt  they  thought  they  had  as  much  right  to  seize  the  natives  and 
their  wives  as  the  Europeans  had  to  take  possession  of  the  land. 
At  all  events,  in  1892- 1893  there  was  a  general  rising  of  the  Arabs, 
and  although  at  first  the  Free  State  forces  and  those  of  the  Belgian 
Anti-Slavery  Society  met  with  some  disasters,  by  the  end  of  1893 
the  Arabs  on  the  middle  and  upper  Congo,  and  as  far  as  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, were  thoroughly  defeated  and  their  strongholds  captured. 
Some  of  the  chief  Arabs  gave  in  their  submission,  though  it  is  feared 
1  Compare  the  views  upon  this  subject  rehearsed  in  ch.  xvii. 


l««e  AFRICA 

1885-1895 

thnt  another  attempt  will  be  made  to  re-establish  their  position. 
Some  African  authorities,  tlioroughly  acrlnainte^J  with  the  Arabs 
and  their  wavs  and  scntinienls,  maintain  that  the  methods  adopted 
l)V  the  I-Vco  State  are  bad  policy;  and  that  it  would  be  wiser  and 
more  conducive  to  the  end  in  view  to  make  friends  of  them  and 
convince  them  that  they  would  g;iim  far  more  in  the  end  by  lej^iti- 
mate  trade  than  by  raiding  for  slaves  and  ivory.  However,  so  far 
as  the  IVoe  State  is  concerned,  this  method  has  not  been  adopted. 
And  indeed  it  is  difiicult  to  see  how,  with  European  powers  on  every 
side  oi  them,  the  IVce  State  in  the  west.  Germany  in  the  cast,  Eng- 
land, France,  and  the  Free  State  in  the  north,  and  England  in  the 
soutli.  the  slave-traders  have  any  chance  of  cf)ntinuing  their  occupa- 
tion for  long,  if  only  these  powers  cooperate  in  carrying  out  the 
r>russels  Act.  The  trade  is  without  doubt  ruined ;  but  the  areas 
claimed  by  the  various  powers  arc  so  enormous,  the  officials  so  few, 
and  means  of  communication  so  primitive,  that  it  is  not  possible,  at 
jiresent,  to  cover  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  grotmd,  or  block  all 
of  the  many  routes  from  the  interior  to  the  coast.  In  these  cam- 
paigns against  the  slavers,  up  to  1895,  some  seventy  thousand  Arabs 
and  their  followers  were  slain.  Arab  strongholds  have  been  swept 
away  and  other  centers  established,  from  which  European  inilucnce 
will  emanate. 

There  has  been  no  lack  of  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  king  to  carry 
out  his  own  aims  and  part  at  least  of  the  object  which  the  Berlin 
Act  had  in  view.  The  amount  of  exploring  work  accomplished 
under  the  auspices  of  the  state  is  creditable.  The  whole  of  the 
Congo,  at  least  as  far  as  the  Lukuga,  has  been  laid  down  with  a  fair 
approach  to  accuracy.  North  and  south  all  the  great  tributaries 
have  liecn  explored,  and  in  the  ten  years  succeeding  i«^H5  nearly 
seven  tliousand  miles  of  waterway  were  opened  up  to  navigation. 
A  fair  knowledge  has  been  obtained  of  the  countries  watered  by 
the  m.'ignificent  rivers  and  of  the  various  tribes  wliicli  inhabit  them. 

Again,  a  regular  administration  has  been  established,  and  it 
must  be  admitted  that  there  has  been  a  certain  amount  of  success. 
The  administrative  headquarters  are  in  Brussels,  where  there  are 
a  variety  oi  functionaries.  The  State  is  di\'idc(l  into  fourteen  dis- 
tricts or  ])ro\inccs,  with  a  governor-general,  and  a  sub-governor  or 
commi-'^iMner  for  each  district.  There  are  numerous  stations  not 
only  on  the  C<^ngo  it'^elf,  but  on  the  great  tributaries  north  and 
south,  the  administrative  staff  numbering  some   11 15  officials.     A 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  123 

1886-1906 

system  of  justice,  criminal  and  civil,  has  been  devised,  with  courts 
of  first  and  second  instance.  On  the  Upper  Cong-o  martial  law 
prevails. 

The  finances  of  the  State  reached  a  critical  position  in  1894. 
Notwithstanding  the  subsidy  of  the  sovereign  and  the  annual  con- 
tribution of  Belgium,  the  deficit  in  the  finances  threatened  to  be 
enormous.  The  revenue  from  customs  and  taxation  is  insignificant, 
and  the  expenses  connected  with  the  action  against  the  Arabs,  the 
Kerckhoven  and  other  aggressive  expeditions,  are  very  great.  Now, 
however,  that  there  remains  little  to  withdraw  the  energies  of  the 
State  from  the  industrial  development  of  the  resources  of  the  terri- 
tories, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  tide  will  turn  and  that  substantial 
results  will  begin  to  be  reaped  from  this  royal  enterprise.  Its  effec- 
tive forces,  in  the  year  1905,  numbered  16,183  natives,  under  164 
European  officers  and  194  sergeants. 

That,  in  the  hands  of  inexperienced  young  officers,  poorly  paid, 
dealing  with  savages,  under  the  influence  of  a  tropical  climate,  far 
from  the  controlling  influence  of  public  opinion  and  the  restraining 
hand  of  their  superior  officers,  there  should  be  abuses  of  the  power 
intrusted  to  them  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  That  there  have  been 
abuses,  that  the  natives  have  been  at  least  occasionally,  if  not  fre- 
quently, treated  with  great  cruelty,  and  dealt  with  as  slaves,  there 
is  only  too  much  evidence  to  prove ;  of  this  more  will  be  seen  in  a 
later  chapter.  We  do  not  require  to  go  to  the  Congo  State  for 
instances  of  the  demoralizing  eft"ect  which  savage  surroundings  have 
on  even  highly  civilized  men.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  we  can 
hardly  deal  with  Africans  as  we  do  with  civilized  Europeans,  and 
that  if  any  progress  is  to  be  made  at  all  a  certain  amount  of  compul- 
sion must  be  used.  But  if  this  be  so,  it  imposes  the  duty  of  exercis- 
ing all  the  more  care  in  selecting  officers  who  will  not  be  tempted  to 
make  this  compulsion  assume  the  form  of  cruelty  and  slavery,  and 
so  risk  that  breaking-up  of  the  h  ree  State  whicli  not  a  few  consider 
to  be  inevitable. 

Among  the  ci\-ilizing  influences  at  work  in  the  new  state  we 
must  reckon  that  of  Christian  missions — Catholic  and  Protestant, 
English,  American,  Erench,  and  Belgian.  There  are  many  stations 
in  various  parts  of  the  territory,  and  among  the  missionaries  are 
men  of  insight  and  tact,  who  aid  in  rousing  the  native  from  his  low 
estate.  In  all  there  are  475  missionaries,  their  number  being  about 
equally  divided  between  Catholic  and  I'rolestant. 


\o^  AFRICA 

1887-1901 

A  more  or  less  active  trndc  has  of  course  been  carried  on,  and 
trading  centers  have  been  estabHshed  at  various  points  besides  those 
occupied  by  the  State  stations.  AUogethcr  there  were,  in  January, 
i(K>4.  alxuu  J500  whites  (there  were  only  254  in  1886).  Of  these, 
144 J  were  I'clj^ians.  of  whom  there  were  only  46  in  1886,  and  40 
Americans.  Tract ically  ail  the  nations  of  Europe  are  represented, 
l)ut  returns  qive  only  one  native  of  the  white  race.  It  may  be  said 
tliat  all  the  white  population  of  the  Congo  are  more  or  less  directly 
cngageil  in  tratle,  not  even  excluding  the  officials  themselves,  either 
on  their  own  belialf  or  on  behalf  of  the  State.  Private  traders,  as 
lias  been  stated,  complain  of  the  increasing  competition  which  they 
must  submit  to  from  the  State  officials,  who.  naturally,  have  great 
advantages  over  their  rivals.  Practically  the  free-trade  clauses  of 
the  Berlin  Act  are  a  dead  letter;  the  Congo  Free  State  is  virtually, 
and  will  9^)me  time  be  in  reality,  a  Belgian  colony.  Whether  such 
a  monopolizing  policy  is  a  wise  one,  even  from  a  purely  business 
point  of  view,  is.  however,  doubtful.  But  be  that  as  it  may,  the 
exports  from  the  State  territories  increased  from  about  $400,000  in 
18S7  to  about  $1,600,000  in  1890,  though  it  was  only  a  little  over 
$1,000,000  in  1 891 ;  figures  for  later  years  show  a  steady  increase 
in  exports  of  original  produce  up  to  over  $10,000,000  for  1901. 
I'elgium  gets  the  lion's  share  of  the  special  export  and  import  trade; 
the  chief  imj)orts.  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are:  tissues, 
foods,  drinks,  machinery,  arms,  clothing,  metals  and  their  manu- 
factures. 

As  yet  the  exports  from  the  Congo  are  almost  exclusively  the 
natural  products  of  Central  Africa,  viz.,  ivory,  caoutchouc,  palm 
nuts,  palm  oil,  and  coffee.  Ivory  once  contrihutcd  quite  one-half 
of  the  total  exports  from  the  Free  State  territories.  It  counted  for 
only  $8cx),0C)0  in  1901.  The  export  of  jjalm  nuts  and  oil  in  1890 
amounted  to  $750.0^00,  and  fell  to  $650,000  in  1893,  more  than  one- 
half  obtained  from  outside  the  Free  State  limits.  It  again  fell,  in 
1901.  to  about  $450,000.  Of  caoutchouc,  $200,000  worth  came 
fri  ni  tlie  I'rcc  State  in  1893,  while  nearly  double  the  amount  is  the 
proflucc  of  I'rench  and  Portuguese  Congo;  but  the  exports  of  this 
article  f(jr  1901  were  valued  at  $8,800,000.  So  with  coffee;  of  the 
$34rj.ooo  w  .rth  exported  by  the  Congo  in  1890,  only  $17,500  worth 
can  he  crc'.itcd  to  the  I'^ree  State,  while  in  1893.  of  the  coffee  ex- 
p'Ticd,  ni  ne  came  from  tlic  hVce  State  proper  at  all;  the  exports 
i"V  1901  were  \alue(l  at  $12,UU0, 


BERLIN     CONFERENCE  125 

1890-1903 

Thus  far  only  the  natural  products  of  tropical  Africa  have  been 
dealt  with ;  practically  nothing  has  been  done  to  develop  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  soil,  except  perhaps  on  a  small  scale  around  the  various 
stations.  Such  mineral  resources  as  may  exist  in  the  Congo  region 
— and  though  much  secrecy  is  maintained  they  are  believed  to  be 
considerable — have  not  been  touched.  It  is  only  those  who  fancy 
that  Africa  can  be  transformed  into  a  Europe  or  an  India  in  a 
decade  that  would  have  expected  more.  The  natural  resources  of 
the  basin  are  plentiful  enough  to  yield  valuable  returns  to  modest 
commercial  enterprises  for  many  years ;  but  to  keep  up  the  expen- 
sive machinery  of  a  state,  and  support  an  endless  series  of  exploring 
and  fighting  expeditions,  these  natural  resources  will  have  to  be 
worked  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  has  hitherto  been  done.  For 
1894  the  estimated  expenditure  of  the  Free  State  was  about 
$1,450,000,  leaving  a  deficit,  when  all  sums  are  taken  into  account, 
of  $350,000.  The  estimated  revenue  for  1902  and  1903  was  about 
$5,600,000;  the  expenditures,  $6,500,000  and  $6,000,000  respec- 
tively. The  estimate  for  the  defensive  forces  of  the  State  in  1894 
was  $750,000;  in  1892  it  was  only  $200,000;  the  estimated  expendi- 
ture for  "  Public  Force"  for  1903  (exclusive  of  marine,  etc.)  was 
$1,540,000.  Even  were  the  profits  accruing  from  the  whole  of  the 
Free  State  trade  the  perquisite  of  the  king,  they  w-ould  hardly  suf- 
fice to  meet  the  outlay;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  but  a  small  proportion 
of  them  go  to  the  credit  of  the  State.  The  King  of  the  Belgians 
professed  to  have  entered  upon  his  great  enterprise  from  other  than 
purely  commercial  motives,  but  it  is  obvious  that  there  is  a  limit 
even  to  the  royal  finances.  It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  blame  him 
for  endeavoring,  through  the  Brussels  Congress  of  1890,  to  so  far 
modify  the  Berlin  Act  as  to  be  permitted  to  levy  duties  on  imports 
as  well  as  exports,  nor  for  adopting  other  means — house-taxes, 
trading-licenses,  etc. — of  raising  a  revenue.  If  the  org^anization  of 
a  state  is  to  be  carried  out,  it  of  course  involves  expenditure;  and 
the  profits  on  Central  African  trade  arc  so  enormous  that  they  can 
well  afford  to  yield  a  percentage  in  return  for  the  securit}'-  which  a 
state  is  supposed  to  afford.  It  might  conceivably  have  been  more 
profitable  for  all  concerned  had  the  development  of  the  Free  State 
been  intrusted  to  a  great  chartered  company  similar  to  the  Royal 
Niger  Company.  But  this  would  have  defeated  the  great  object 
which  the  king  had  in  view  in  entering  upon  African  enterprise; 
he  reaps  a  subjective  reward,  at  any  rate,  in  realizing  that  he  is  the 


126  AFRICA 

1902-1903 

active  head  and  movin.cf  spirit  of  a  gigantic  undertaking  which  he 
IkHcvcs  is  dcstinetl  to  form  a  great  civilized  state  in  Central 
Africa.  Already  the  Congo  Railway  Company  has  completed 
a  line  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  river,  though  progress  was  la- 
mentably slow  and  attended  by  cn(M-mous  loss  of  life  among  the 
victims  of  the  compulsory  labor  system.  Upon  the  upper  river  thirty 
gtncriiment  stc:imers  sujiply  a  public  transport  service.  That  such 
a  railwav  wouKl  be  beneficial  in  many  ways  can  hardly  be  doubted, 
but  ahluuigii  the  rates  are  very  high,  it  can  hardly  1)e  expected  to 
pay  withnul  a  great  increase  in  the  present  trade.  The  difficulty  in 
obtaining  adc(iuate  native  labor  for  this  railway  was  so  great  that 
in  N'^vcinber.  1892,  the  company  was  compelled  to  import  over  six 
hnn'ircd  Chinese  coolies.  There  are  a  few  isolated  Chinamen  in 
South  .\frica  ;  but  the  C(Migo  Free  State  has  the  distinction  of  ])eing 
the  first  t.>  try  the  experiment  of  substituting  Chinese  for  native 
labor.  The  effort  was  unsuccessful,  for  within  a  few  months  nearly 
five  hundred  died,  and  sometime  after  most  of  those  that  were  left 
suddenly  decamped,  and  subsequently  a  few  were  seen  far  in  the 
interior  trying  to  walk  overland  to  China, 

While,  then,  the  dreams  of  the  Berlin  Congress  have  vanished, 
and  tiic  Great  International  Free  State  has  almost  lapsed  into  a 
Hclgian  colony,  wliile  tnany  mistakes  have  been  made  and  crimes 
against;  hnmaniiy  liave  been  committed,  wdiile  the  expenditure  has 
been  la\-ish  and  the  returns  insignificant,  while  sla\-c-trading  still 
iliurislics  to  some  extent  e\en  within  the  boundaries  of  tlic  h'ree 
State,  while  cannibalism  is  widely  prevalent,  and  civilization  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  taken  root;  yet  it  nnist  be  admitted  that  on 
the  \\lK)le  there  has  been  some  progress,  or  at  least  change.  The 
hrce  .^late  ni.ay  not  continue  to  exist  under  its  present  organization, 
li  vr/Av  be  broken  up  into  sc\eral  states,  or  may  be  divided  among 
severa.I  piwcr^;  l)nt,  whatever  may  be  its  fate  in  this  respect,  it 
cannot  stand  .-thl,  and  it  cannot  go  back.  The  mr)rc  it  is  opened  up 
to  tlic  view  I'i  c'\ili/cd  humanity  the  better  it  will  be  for  tlie  conduct 
of  its  ai::iir-  riu  1  i'>r  the  interests  of  the  natives.  It  will  certainly 
be  l'M,kcd  b.'ik  !o  in  the  future  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  out- 
c  .nn-h  of  the  ni-dcni  contact  between  Furope  and  Africa;  wliile  its 
r-'val  r  mii'cr  will  be  reckoned  among  the  most  enterprising,  ambi- 
t-.^U'^  and  .a".:te  kings  of  the  century. 


Chapter  XII 

GERMAN   EAST  AFRICA.     1865-1910 

THE  fact  that  the  Conference  had  been  convened  at  Berlin 
to  settle  the  rules  of  the  game  of  partition  was  not  re- 
garded by  those  taking  part  in  it  as  a  sufficient  reason  for 
holding  their  hands.  Even  while  it  was  sitting  Germany  was  mak- 
ing inroads  into  a  region  which  Great  Britain  regarded  as  peculiarly 
her  own.  The  successful  result  of  the  operations  in  West  Africa 
intensified  the  colonial  feeling  in  Germany,  and  filled  the  more 
active  spirits  with  impatience  for  further  annexations.  It  has 
already  been  seen  that,  as  far  back  as  1865,  Kersten  strongly  urged 
the  annexation  by  Germany  of  the  region  lying  to  the  south  of  the 
River  Jub  in  East  Africa.  Years  before  that  Hamburg  trade  had 
found  a  footing  in  Zanzibar,  and,  according  to  German  authorities, 
it  exceeded  that  of  all  other  European  powers,  and  was  second 
only  to  the  trade  carried  on  by  British  Indians.  Again,  in  1875, 
Vice-Admiral  Livonius,  in  a  communication  to  the  German  Admi- 
ralty, urged  that  Zanzibar  should  be  taken  under  German  protec- 
tion. Three  years  later,  as  has  been  seen,  the  sultan  was  persuaded 
by  Mackinnon  to  offer  to  cede  the  fiscal  administration  of  his  terri- 
tories to  England ;  but  although  the  treaty  was  actually  drawn  up, 
the  British  Government  threw  difficulties  in  the  way,  and  eventually 
the  scheme  was  thwarted.  The  sultan's  influence,  if  not  rule,  ex- 
tended from  Warsheikh  on  the  north  to  Cape  Delgado  on  the  south, 
and  included  all  the  islands  on  the  coast.  There  can  he  no  doubt 
also  that  through  the  Arab  traders  his  influence  extended  far  into 
the  interior,  though  probably  no  native  chief  beyond  the  coast  region 
acknowledged  the  sultan's  suzerainty.  Meantime  trade  was  in- 
creasing steadily  at  Zanzibar,  where  British  influence  was  still  pre- 
dominant, and  the  British  Indian  traders,  both  Hindu  and  Moham- 
medan, of  whom  thousands  were  settled  on  the  island  and  on  the 
coasts,  were  a  powerful  factor  in  the  sultanate.  Again,  in  1879, 
Ernst  von  Weber,  one  of  the  most  strenuous  of  German  colonial 
pioneers,  in  an  address  to  the  Central  Vcrcin  fiir  Handelsgcogra- 

127 


1^  A  F  II I  ('  A 

1882-1885 

f^hii'.  drew  altentii)n  to  the  River  Jul)  and  the  desirability  of  Cier- 
iiiaiiv  ac(|uirinj^  a  lenitoiial  footiiis^  in  the  Zanzihar  rej^jon ;  in  this 
respect  reiteratiiij^f  tlic  views  enunciated  by  (lerhard  Rohlfs  about 
the  same  time.  In  iSSj  Count  Joachim  Tfeil  wrote  an  essay  stroiii^ly 
urijini,'  (lermany  to  occupy  the  very  districts  which  were  afterward 
acijuired.  He  pointed  out  that  the  reg^ion  east  of  tlie  lakes  must 
iifTer  a  tleld  for  protitahle  trade  and  cultivation,  and  that  the  claims 
uf  the  Sultan  v»ere  of  a  very  shadowy  kind. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  attention  of  the  German  colonial 
party  was  ilirected  to  IC^ist  Africa  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  to 
West  Africa,  thoug'h  it  was  in  the  latter  that  active  operations  bet^an. 
Sus])ici<>n  was  aroused  at  the  British  h\)reij^n  Oftice  in  the  autumn 
uf  iS«^4.  and  on  November  24  the  British  Minister  at  Berlin 
nbtanied  an  assurance  from  Prince  Piismarck  that  "Germany 
was  not  endeavoring^  to  obtain  a  protectorate  over  Zanzibar."  But 
an  uneasy  feeling  was  again  aroused  when,  toward  the  end  of  the 
year,  it  was  known  that  the  African  explorer,  Rohlfs.  was  making 
his  way  to  Zanzibar,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  German  con- 
sul-general. On  January  14,  1885,  Earl  Granville  communicated 
with  Berlin,  somewhat  timidly,  drawing  attention  to  this  circum- 
stance, at  the  same  time  ex])ressing  a  confident  belief  that  Germany 
did  not  mean  to  annex  Zanzibar.  The  British  Minister  pointed  out 
lirieily  the  long  and  intimate  relations  of  England  with  Zanzibar, 
over  wliich  slie  had  acted  as  a  sort  of  guardian  and  tutelary  deity. 
Prince  Bismarck's  rej)ly  showed  that  he.  or  those  by  whom  he  was 
insj)ire(l.  had  mastered  the  history  of  the  Zanzibar  dominions  and 
knew  liow  to  ajjply  it  to  their  own  ends.  He  knew  the  ])art  which 
iiad  Ijccn  jilayed  by  1-Jigland,  and  was  able  to  correct  Lord  Granville 
on  Some  oi  tlie  dates  which  the  latter  had  been  rash  entnigh  to  cite. 
Xo  direct  slalemcnt  was  made  as  to  what  was  the  real  object  of 
Ruhlfs's  m:^^iun,  but  un  h'ebruary  25  Granville  was  informed  that 
the  con-iil  general  was  "commissioned  to  exert  his  influence"  to 
secure  freedom  of  commerce  in  the  sultan's  dominions.  In  short, 
the  t' aie  (;f  li.c  coninninication  from  Berlin  was  evidently  intended 
to  imhicc  the  beh'ef  in  London  that  R(jhlfs  had  no  either  object  in 
view  than  to  conclude  c  -niniercial  treaties  with  tlie  .Sultan;  Prince 
Bismarck  did  not  -ee  that  the  relations  between  iMigland  and  Zan- 
zibar were  -uvh  as  to  prevent  this.  Such  treaties  had  been  made 
a.T  far  hack  a-  iS;^;  ijy  Anieiica,  1839  by  luigland,  1844  by  I'Tance, 
and   1859  ])y  the  ilan.-e  towns.     As  England  had  declared  herself 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  129 

1864-1884 

warmly  on  behalf  of  the  independence  of  Zanzibar,  and  had  in  1864 
joined  France  in  a  declaration  to  this  effect,  she  could  not  object 
to  the  sultan  making-  treaties  with  whomsoever  he  pleased. 

But  the  uneasy  feeling  was  not  allayed.  This  is  clear  even 
from  the  correspondence  in  the  Blue  Books  which  are  published 
on  the  subject ;  but  these  contain  a  mere  selection  from  a  vast  mass 
of  correspondence,  the  bulk  of  which  is  supposed,  though  printed, 
never  to  be  seen  except  by  the  official  eye.  From  this  private  and 
confidential  correspondence  it  is,  however,  still  more  plainly  evident 
that  both  at  Zanzibar  and  in  London  it  was  felt  that  some  new  Ger- 
man enterprise  was  in  the  air.  But  the  British  Foreign  Office  pro- 
fessed itself  satisfied  with  the  vague  assurances  from  Berlin. 

Karl  Peters,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  chief  disturbing 
agent  in  East  African  affairs,  was  in  1884  only  twenty-eight  years 
of  age.  He  had  been  educated  at  German  universities,  and  had 
resided  for  a  time  in  England.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was 
ignorant  of  colonial  matters,  and  had  apparently  no  interest  in  the 
colonial  movement.  He  was,  however,  drawn  into  the  movement 
mainly  through  the  influence  of  his  friend.  Dr.  Lange,  who  himself 
did  so  much  to  promote  it.  Peters  was  a  man  of  somewhat  imperious 
temper,  and  from  the  first  seems  to  have  been  filled  with  a  feeling 
of  bitterness  toward  England.  The  German  Colonial  Society 
founded  by  Prince  Hohenlohe  Langenburg,  with  its  thousands  of 
members,  was  not  practical  enough  for  the  more  advanced  colonial 
party.  Early  in  1884  another,  the  Society  for  German  Colonization, 
was  formed  by  the  late  Count  Banddin,  who  was  the  first  president. 
He  was  soon  succeeded  by  Lange,  who  in  a  short  time  was  followed 
by  Peters.  This  new  society,  inspired  by  Count  Joachim  Pfeil  and 
Dr.  Peters,  lost  no  time  in  maturing  a  plan  of  operations  for  further 
wholesale  annexations.  Some  proposed  to  enter  Africa  by  Sofala. 
But  the  favorite  scheme  was  to  annex  the  lofty  region  east  of  Mos- 
samedes,  in  Portuguese  West  Africa ;  evidently  the  claims  of  Portu- 
gal were  not  held  of  much  account.  Everything  was  prepared  in 
the  summer  of  1884  for  an  expedition  to  Alossamedes,  when  the 
German  Government  intervened  and  told  the  enterprising  young 
men  that  whatever  they  did  was  at  their  own  risk,  and  that  no 
annexations  in  that  region  would  be  sanctioned  by  the  government. 
This  turned  the  attention  of  the  society  again  to  East  Africa.  St. 
Lucia  Bay  was  proposed,  but  in  the  end  the  scheme  all  along  advo- 
cated by  Count  Pfeil  was  adopted,  and  it  was  decided  to  make  Zan- 


ISO  AFRICA 

1884 

/ib.ir  tiic  basis  of  opcralions.  Many  practical  men.  including  a 
niiinhcr  of  capitalists,  gathered  round  the  new  society,  which  was 
not.  lunvever.  very  liher.ally  provided  with  means;  $10,000  com- 
prised all  tiie  available  funds. 

The  greatest  secrecy  was  observed.  It  was  arranged  that 
Peters,  in  conipanv  with  Count  Pfeil  and  Dr.  Jiihlke,  a  devoted 
friend  of  Peteis.  should  proceetl  (juietly  to  Zanzibar,  (^f  the  three, 
Pfei!  was  the  oulv  one  who  had  been  in  Africa  and  who  had  any 
practical  knowledge  to  guide  llie  undertaking.  They  gave  out  that 
thev  were  houml  for  Livcriiool.  but  unobserved,  and  in  tlie  disguise 
(^f  mech.aiiics.  tliev  made  their  way  to  Trieste,  and.  as  deck  passen- 
gers, thence  to  Zanzibar,  which  they  reached  on  November  4,  1H84. 
C)uite  against  the  .advice  of  the  German  consul,  who  had  received 
instructions  from  I'erlin  to  discourage  the  project,  but  supported  by 
<>t;ier  German  residents  in  Zanzibar,  they  left  the  coast  on  Xo\  em- 
ber IJ.  Seven  days  later  the  first  "  treaty  "  was  signed  with  a  native 
chief,  and  tlie  German  flag  was  hoisted  at  Mbuzini.  I'cjlluwing  the 
\\'.''.nii  l\i\er.  t!ie  three  German  jjioucers  wetit  on  to  the  high  land 
of  I'sagara,  and  treaties  were  rapidly  negotiated  with  ten  chiefs. 
(hi  nccember  17  Peters  w.as  back  at  the  coast  with  "treaties" 
which  ga\e  liis  society  all  rights  over  the  countries  of  L'scguha. 
Xguru.  I'sagara.  l'1<ami.  I'mvomero.  and  Mukondokwa.  a  solid 
l)lock  of  r)0.ooo  square  miles,  lying  almost  direct  west  from  Piaga- 
moyo.  Peters  hastened  Ixack  to  Berlin,  where,  on  I-'ebruary  12, 
18S5.  he  founded  the  German  l^ast  Africa  Compruiv,  to  which  the 
rights  he  and  his  colleagues  had  acquired  were  ceded.  On  the  27th. 
ahno-i  Coincident  with  the  signing  of  the  Ik-rlin  .\cl,  the  German 
Piiip-ror  i<^ucd  a  "  Schntd)ricf ,"  in  wliich  he  extended  his  i)rotec- 
ti>n  to  tlic  territory  ac(|uired,  or  which  might  be  ac(|uired.  by  the 
Society  fur  Girman  Coli 'nization.  This  is  notcworthv  as  the  first 
d<  ..T.nKTit  i>f  t!;e  kin<l  issued  by  tlie  itnperial  go\ernment  :  it  was.  in 
fart,  a  cii.-irtei".  It  is  no  secret  that  the  unsuspecting  chiefs  were 
caji'lcd  into  .-i]ii)ending  their  signatures  or  marks  to  documents  which 
tliey  were-  a^-ured  were  perfectly  innocent;  the  three  Germans  sim- 
ply wanted  tlie  aut'igraphs  of  their  African  friends  to  carry  back 
with  tlieni  to  luiri.])C.  P.ul.  when  all  is  said,  these  "treaties"  were 
pp.bably  a-  wilid  and  as  valuable  as  mrjst  of  thf)se  that  have  been 
made  witli  nati\c  cliicfs  by  "  jjioneers  "  of  all  nationalities. 

Alter  the  e\cnt-  wiiich  had  taken  place  on  the  west  coast,  it 
ran  ^ard^,■  he  Kr.d  iliat  tlie  Priti'^h  (Jo\crnment  were  taken  by  sur- 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  131 

1884-1885 

prise.  Sir  John  Kirk  had  been  for  many  years  British  representa- 
tive at  Zanzibar,  and  his  tact,  experience,  firmness,  and  thorough 
knowledge  of  Africa  and  Africans  had  rendered  his  influence  with 
the  Sultan  so  effective  that  he  had  become  virtual  ruler  of  Zanzibar. 
Only  six  years  before,  these  very  territories  which  the  Germans  had 
quietly  pocketed  had  been  virtually  offered  to  England;  at  any 
moment  Kirk  had  but  to  say  the  word,  and  the  sultan  would  have 
placed  himself  under  British  protection.  After  the  many  years 
during  which  Kirk  had  been  riveting  British  influence  at  Zanzibar, 
it  was  a  cruel  task  which  was  forced  upon  him  by  the  British  For- 
eign Office — to  use  all  his  exertions  to  undo  what  he  had  done,  and 
induce  the  Sultan  to  cede  to  Germany  not  only  the  whole  of  the 
interior,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  coast.  The  orders  from  London 
were  of  the  most  peremptory  character,  and  Kirk's  anguished  remon- 
strances were  of  no  avail.  It  was  not  till  April  28,  1885,  that  the 
annexation  was  formally  announced  to  the  sultan.  The  latter  imme- 
diately sent  a  strong  protest  to  Berlin  against  the  appropriation  of 
what  he  regarded  as  his  territories,  and  later  on  sent  similar  protests 
to  the  British  and  American  governments.  Prince  Bismarck  accused 
Kirk  of  instigating  these  protests,  but  the  latter  replied  that  on  the 
contrary  he  had  exerted  his  influence  to  prevent  the  sultan  from 
going  to  Berlin  himself  to  remonstrate.  The  British  representative 
was  instructed  to  co-operate  immediately  with  the  German  consul- 
general  in  forwarding  German  interests. 

It  was  not  of  course  the  business  of  Bismarck  to  inform  the 
British  Government  beforehand  what  were  his  real  designs  on 
East  Africa.  With  regard  to  the  sultan's  claims,  he  pointed  out 
that  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  sultan  exercised  no  jurisdiction  what- 
ever away  from  the  coast,  and  that  on  the  latter  he  occupied  only  a 
few  points.  The  Berlin  Act  (to  which,  however,  Zanzibar  at  this 
time  was  not  a  party)  had  established  the  doctrine  that  no  annexa- 
tion on  the  coast  would  be  recognized  which  was  not  evidenced  liy 
effective  occupation  and  the  establishment  of  some  kind  of  jurisdic- 
tion. The  sultan,  it  was  maintained,  had  a  few  trading  posts  in  the 
interior,  but  that  was  all;  and  Germany  applied  the  same  treatment 
to  him  as  England  a  year  or  two  later  did  to  Portugal  in  the  Zam- 
bezi region.  That  the  sultan  had  real  dominion  all  along  the  coast 
from  Cape  Delgado  as  far  as  Lamu,  the  evidence  was  ample ;  fur- 
ther north  his  power  was  confined  to  a  few  coast  towns,  which  in- 
cluded the  only  landing  places  where  goods  could  be  shipped.     At 


132  AFRICA 

1884-1885 

Arab  stations  in  tlie  interior,  even  as  far  as  Lake  Tanganyika,  his 
sovereignty  was  roc(\£rnize(l.  but  bcyonil  a  certain  distance  from  the 
coast  there  can  be  httle  doubt  that  Central  Africa,  between  the 
coast  and  Lake  Tanganyika,  was  in  reality  a  no-man's-land.  The 
worst  tiiat  can  be  said  of  Germany's  action  in  the  matter  is  that  she 
stole  a  march  u|)>'n  luigland.  which,  according  to  accepted  stand- 
artls.  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  immoral,  either  in  business  or  diplo- 
macy, iov  in  neither  of  these  is  chivalry  supposed  to  hold  a  place. 

On  May  J5.  1SS5.  Lord  Granville  assured  Prince  Bismarck 
that  the  British  Government  had  no  intention  of  ofTering  any  ob- 
struction to  German  projects,  but  welcomed  Germany's  co()peration 
in  developing  the  resources  of  East  Africa  and  in  endeavoring  to 
suppress  slavery.  At  the  same  time  he  informed  the  German  Chan- 
cellor that  a  number  of  English  capitalists  intended  to  undertake  an 
imix-irtant  enterprise  in  the  region  between  the  East  Coast  and  the 
Nile  Lakes,  which  they  proposed  to  unite  by  means  of  a  railway; 
but  the  project  would  only  receive  the  support  of  the  government 
if  the  latter  were  assured  that  it  would  in  no  way  interfere  with 
German  designs.  In  these  somewhat  humble  terms  was  the  initiation 
of  the  Imperial  British  East  Africa  Company  announced  to  Ger- 
many, and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  a  railway  to  the  lake  was  one  of 
the  first  projects  thought  of. 

The  sultan,  however,  was  not  inclined  to  resign  himself  to  the 
situation  so  readily  as  the  British.  lie  sent  his  troops  into  Usagara 
to  raise  his  flag  over  a  region  which  he  considered  his  own,  and 
where  the  Germans  had  stolen  a  march  upon  him,  and  dispatched 
his  commander-in-cliief,  General  Mathews,  an  l^nglish  naval  lieu- 
tenant, to  Mount  Kilimanjaro,  to  obtain  from  the  chiefs  their  adhe- 
sirin  to  his  sovereignty,  thus  anticipating  the  Germans  in  this  region. 
\'arious  agents  of  the  German  l^ast  Africa  Society  (to  which  the 
Coloni/ati'  !i  Society  made  o\er  its  rights)  were  traveling  about  the 
interior  making  additional  treaties.  They  had  long  tried  to  reach 
Moimt  Kiiiiiianjaro  to  ])romotc  German  interests,  in  spite  of  the 
sultan's  ir.i->ic.ii.  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  t8.'^4  If. 
IL  Jolm-t'in  oljiaiiicd  a  concession  of  territory  there.  The  sul- 
tan CMnt.::iucd  < 'l)-ii!i,iie  and  would  not  listen  to  tlie  pro])osrd  made 
by  the  Gcnnaii  G  >\crnnicnL  for  a  recognition  (jf  German  territr)rial 
rig'its  in  ^-:!C,^■l^a  and  Witu.  The  good  ofiices  of  Kirk  were  of  no 
aw'iil.  and  it  ua^  only  w'.l'U  a  formidable  German  s(|uadron  appeared 
l>ef  re  his  palace  on  August  7,  1885,  and  an  ultimatum  was  pre- 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  133 

1862-1885 

sented  by  the  commander,  that  the  sultan  intimated  his  recognition 
of  certain  of  the  German  territorial  claims,  including  Witu.  Thus 
the  crisis  was  safely  passed.  Various  difficulties  and  protests  oc- 
curred before  everything  was  settled,  but  the  development  of  Ger- 
man suzerainty  in  East  Africa  promised  now  to  be  steady  and  sure. 
Meantime  German  annexation,  thus  recognized,  was  proceeding 
apace  on  the  coast  north  of  Zanzibar.  According  to  German  state- 
ments there  w^as  a  question  as  to  Richard  Brenner  having  concluded 
a  treaty  on  behalf  of  Prussia  with  the  Sultan  of  Witu,  a  small  dis- 
trict north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tana  River.  The  Sultan  Simba 
had  been  compelled  some  years  previously  to  leave  Patta  Island  and 
take  refuge  on  the  mainland;  there  he  had  established  himself  among 
the  Gallas  and  Somalis,  and  according  to  Consul  Haggard,  who 
visited  him  in  August,  1884,  Witu  w^as  the  refuge  for  all  the  "  mal- 
contents, felons,  and  bankrupts  of  the  surrounding  country,"  who 
lived  by  slave-raiding  and  cattle-stealing,  and  were  a  terror  to  the 
whole  region.  Mr.  Haggard  narrowly  escaped  being  made  pris- 
oner because  he  declined  to  send  the  Sultan  Simba  guns  and  ammu- 
nition. Simba  found  the  Germans  more  complaisant,  and  they  in 
turn  formed  a  high  opinion  of  the  old  man,  whose  little  kingdom 
seemed  to  them  a  center  of  civilization.  At  any  rate  the  brothers 
Denhardt,  on  April  8,  1885,  obtained  a  concession  from  the  sultan 
of  his  kingdom  (500  square  miles)  for  the  Witu  Company  and  on 
May  27  it  was  placed  under  imperial  protection.  When,  in  June, 
1885,  Lord  Salisbury  succeeded  Earl  Granville  at  the  Foreign  Office, 
a  satisfactory  understanding  had  been  arrived  at  between  the  two 
governments  on  the  position  generally  in  East  Africa,  and  the  Con- 
servative Premier  was  quite  as  disposed  as  the  Liberal  Foreign 
Minister  to  adopt  a  thoroughly  conciliatory  attitude  toward  Ger- 
many's colonial  schemes.  The  British  representative  was  cooper- 
ating with  the  German  consul-general  in  getting  the  sultan  to 
agree  to  a  commercial  treaty  which  would  regulate  the  trade  be- 
tween his  dominions  and  tlie  newly  ac([uircd  German  territories; 
if  this  were  accomplished,  Germany  would  join  the  acknowledgment, 
made  in  1862  by  England  and  h^rance,  of  the  sultan's  independence. 
But  first,  however,  it  would  be  necessary  to  decide  what  precisely 
were  the  sultan's  dominions,  and  it  was  finally  agreed  to  appoint  a 
joint  commission,  with  rcjjresentativcs  of  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Zanzibar,  to  carry  out  on  the  spot  the  work  of 
delimitation. 


134  AFRICA 

18S4-1886 

So  f.ir  as  Rritisli  interests  arc  concerned,  the  most  important 
part  of  the  work  nf  this  international  commission  would  be  the 
delimitati>'n  of  the  region  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  Kiliman- 
jaro, wh.ere.  with  the  consent  of  Great  Ihitain.  the  Sultan  of  Zanzi- 
bar h.id  secured  treaties  which  placed  the  whole  district  under  his 
authority.  In  September.  1SS4,  Johnston  had  obtained  concessions 
of  territory  in  tlie  district  of  Taveta  and  on  the  slopes  of  Kiliman- 
jaro. 'I'liis  h'lmstiin  made  over  to  the  president  of  the  Mancliester 
Chamber  of  (."ommerce.  and  it  was  on  such  a  basis  app.arently  that 
an  association  of  Ihitish  merchants  were  projecting  a  company  for 
oljtaining  territory  between  tlie  coast  and  the  Victoria  Xyanza, 
thr(»iii;h  wliich  they  purposed  to  construct  a  railway.  A  communi- 
cati.in  (>u  tile  subject  was  sent  to  r»erlin  by  Lord  Salisl)ury  in  No- 
vember. 18S5.  and  it  was  ])(iinted  out  that  the  concession  was  several 
iiiMiiilis  earlier  than  the  treaties  made  with  General  Mathews  for 
the  sultan  or  sul)se(|uently  with  Dr.  Jiihlke  and  his  colleagues  in 
fa\c'r  of  the  ( iL-rman  company,  llowcxer,  it  was  agreed  to  allow 
all  claims  tij  he  in  abeyance  mitil  the  commission  was  on  the  si)ot 
and  was  in  a  jKisiiidU  to  decide  between  the  parties;  it  being  undcr- 
st(»<d  that  ncitlier  side  should  seek  to  steal  a  march  upon  the  other. 
Ihit  the  German  agents  were  impatient,  and  were  pushing  their  way 
into  the  Kilimanjaro  region.  This  ])roduce(l  a  protest  from  the 
l-'arl  of  Rosebery.  who  had  charge  of  foreign  affairs  during  a  few 
ninnt'-.s  in  iSSf).  This  protest  is  noteworthy  for  a  tone  of  firmness 
and  a  determination  to  support  British  interests,  which  was  some- 
what wanting  in  the  correspondence  of  the  previous  eighteen 
months.  The  commission,  however,  did  not  go  yew  s])eedily  to 
Work,  though  by  tlie  middle  of  1886  thev  had  collected  nuich  in  for- 
mat i.-n  which  was  of  service  in  enabling  the  German  and  British 
G'Aernmeius  to  coiue  to  an  understanding.  /\nd  meanwhile  a  com- 
mcrtial  treaty  was  arranged  in  .August  of  that  year  between  Zan/.i- 
bai-.  (icrmany.  Mngland,  h" ranee,  and  other  powers,  bv  which  definite 
laritTs  were  substituted  fur  t!ic  soiuewhat  arbitrary  levies  that  pre- 
vi(Ai-ly  existed,  and  an  agreement  reached  that,  as  regards  at  least 
Great  Ihitain  and  Germanv.  all  products  of  the  interior  should  pay 
to  the  ^ultan  the  fixed  tariff  duty  on  reaching  his  coast. 

At  la-^t  on  October  29  and  Xovember  r,  the  British  and 
German  G^  a  eriMuents  came  to  a  definite  agreement  as  to  the  terri- 
t' T\-  w';ic!i  \vi.n!d  be  rrci  igiiized  as  iiiider  the  <o\-ereigntv  of  tlie 
Sultan  of  /,.:i/:bar,  .and  t'l  lids  agreement  tlie  sultan  gave  his  assent 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  135 

1884-1886 

on  December  4.  He  could  not  choose  but  assent,  his  only  condition 
being  that  since  the  two  powers  were  taking  this  part  of  his  king- 
dom from  him  and  giving  it  to  Germany,  "  they  would  protect  our 
kingdom  from  being  divided  among  them  by  other  nations."  The 
Earl  of  Iddesleigh,  who  had  succeeded  Lord  Rosebery  at  the  For- 
eign Office  in  August,  carried  out  the  negotiations  with  a  delicate 
tact  and  firmness  that  kept  Prince  Bismarck  in  the  best  of  tempers 
and  yet  retained  for  England  a  substantial  share  of  East  Central 
Africa. 

From  the  center  of  Tungi  Bay  on  the  south  of  Cape  Delgado  to 
Kipini  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tana  River,  a  strip  of  the  mainland  ten 
nautical  miles  in  width,  was  recognized  by  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  France  as  the  sultan's  domain ;  as  were  also  the  islands  of  Zan- 
zibar and  Pemba,  the  smaller  islands  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles, 
and  the  islands  of  Lamu  and  Alafia.  To  the  north  of  Kipini  the 
towns  of  Kismayu,  Brava,  Meurka,  and  Magdoshu,  with  a  radius 
of  ten  nautical  miles  round  each,  and  Warsheikh,  with  a  radius  of 
five  nautical  miles,  were  left  to  tlie  sultan.  The  intervening  strips 
of  coast  were  regarded  as  independent,  an  arrangement  which 
threatened  to  be  disastrous  to  British  enterprise.  The  sultan  gave 
up  all  claims  to  Kilimanjaro.  Altliough  Johnston's  Kilimanjaro 
concessions  had  not  been  of  much  avail,  the  aspirations  of  the  em- 
bryo British  East  Africa  Company  were  to  some  extent  satisfied 
by  tlie  definition  of  a  boundary  to  the  north  of  which  Germany 
would  not  interfere  with  their  "  spliere  of  influence."  This  was  a 
phrase  which,  like  "  Hinterland,"  came  into  vogue  at  the  time  of 
the  Berlin  Conference,  and  designated  an  arrangement  of  great  con- 
venience in  the  unprecedented  conditions  under  which  a  whole  con- 
tinent was  being  parceled  out.  It  was  obvious  that  the  enormous 
areas  which  were  being  allotted  to  the  various  powers  could  not  be 
occupied  and  developed  all  at  cjnce ;  but  it  was  reasonable  and  for 
the  benefit  of  all  concerned  that  each  nation  sliould  be  left  untram- 
meled  within  certain  limits  agreed  upon,  and  that  her  comnuuiica- 
tions  in  the  rear  should  not  i)e  cut  off.  Unfortunately,  in  some  cases, 
as  will  be  seen,  the  delimitations  left  a  loopliole  for  serious  nn'sun- 
derstandings;  nor  was  it  clear  that  an  arrangement  between  two 
powers  was  binding  on  other  powers  not  parties  to  it. 

In  tlie  case  of  East  Africa  it  was  agreed  that  tlie  northern  limit 
oi  German  influence  and  the  soutliern  Hmit  of  Britisli  influence 
should  be  defined  by  a  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  River  (Jmba  or 


l.'^fi  AFRICA 

1862-1886 

W'an^a.  wliidi  left  practically  the  wliolc  of  the  mapfnificent  Kili- 
manjaro region,  with  its  fertile  slopes  and  foothills,  to  Clerniany. 
Still  further  restrictiiMis  were,  moreover,  placed  on  British  opera- 
tif»n<.  restrictions  which  very  shortly  g-ave  rise  to  much  bitterness 
and  threatened  to  sluit  out  the  British  company  from  the  interior 
alf(\q:ether.  With  W'ilu  as  a  hase  of  operations,  Germany  was  left 
free  to  do  ti')  the  British  sphere  what  she  herself  protested  against 
jRnpfland  do'm^::;  in  the  Camenions  and  in  Southwest  Africa.  But 
the  course  of  events  induced  Germany  ere  long  to  leave  England 
free  to  develop  northward.  Another  important  arrangement,  the 
thin  end  (^f  the  wedge,  indeed,  for  further  developments  on  the  part 
of  Germany,  permitted  Zanzibar  to  lease  to  the  German  African 
Company  the  customs  duties  at  the  ports  of  Dar-es-Salaam  and  Pan- 
,gani,  in  return  for  an  annual  payment  to  the  sultan  by  the  com- 
pany, calculated  on  a  percentage  of  returns  collected,  on  a  sliding 
scale. 

The  strip  of  coast  line  thus  left  to  the  sultan  measured  some 
six  hundred  miles,  though  when  Germany  first  appeared  on  the 
field  lie  claimed  about  three  hundred  miles  m(5re.  Plis  "  independ- 
ence "  was  recognized  by  Germany  in  accordance  with  the  decla- 
ration of  1862  signed  by  France  and  England;  poor  Burghash,  had 
he  been  free  to  speak  his  mind,  might  have  said  this  provision  was 
adding  insult  to  injury.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  Sir  John 
Kirk  did  not  care  to  retain  longer  a  post  which  must  have  become 
luimiliating.  After  serving  his  country's  interests  for  years  with 
zeal  and  success,  so  much  so  that  Zanzibar  had  in  reality  become  an 
api)endage  <if  Tuigland.  it  was  grievous  for  liim  to  see  his  life  work 
ai)()arently  fall  into  the  lap  of  a  foreign  power.  However,  things 
l'.a\c  not  turned  out  quite  so  badly  as  they  seemed  at  first  likely  to 
do.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  revenues  of  the  sultan  were  dimin- 
ished under  tlie  new  arrangements.  The  German  E.ast  Africa 
Conij)any  -et  it<elf  ^\  itii  cncrgv.  intelligence,  and  determination 
to  devcl'ip  its  extensive  territories.  A  committee  of  five  members, 
appnintcd  for  fifteen  years,  undcrlofik  the  administration. 

l)y  an  agreement  between  Germany  and  Portugal  in  December. 
iX<'^r).  the  soiulicrn  boiindary  of  the  German  sj)here  was  marked 
i)y  tl'.c  c"ur-c  of  the  l\:\cr  I\r)vuma  to  the  confluence  of  the  River 
M'sinje.  and  tliencc  wc.it  to  the  shore  of  Lake  Nyasa.  This  agree- 
ment gave  ri-.e  to  a.n  incident  which  nn'ght  have  had  more  serious 
con.-cquence^  but  for  the  remonstrances  of  England  and  Germany. 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  137 

1884-1886 

The  Rovuma  debouches  into  the  Indian  Ocean  some  distance  to 
the  north  of  Tungi  Bay,  recognized  in  the  Anglo-German  arrange- 
ment as  part  of  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Zanzibar  dominions. 
The  suhan,  still  sore  no  doubt  at  the  treatment  to  which  he  had 
been  subjected  by  the  two  great  powers,  at  once  protested  that  he 
would  not  submit  to  be  deprived  by  a  power  like  Portugal  of  the 
northern  half  of  Tungi  Bay,  which  had  belonged  to  Zanzibar  for 
generations,  where  he  had  a  station  and  custom-house,  and  which 
had  just  been  recognized  by  the  three  great  powers  as  his.  Por- 
tugal, equally  irritated  at  the  way  her  claims  had  been  ignored  by 
the  great  powers  and  humiliated  by  the  refusal  of  France,  Germany, 
and  England  to  permit  her  to  be  represented  on  equal  terms  in  the 
joint  commission  of  delimitation,  informed  the  sultan  that  if 
he  did  not  retire  from  Tungi  Bay  and  give  up  all  claim  to  it,  he 
might  look  for  the  consequences.  The  Portuguese  flag  was  hauled 
down  at  Zanzibar,  and  nothing  less  than  the  bombardment  of  the 
town  was  expected.  However,  the  Portuguese  contented  them- 
selves with  sending  a  squadron  to  Tungi  Bay,  seizing  one  of  the 
sultan's  vessels,  and  bombarding  for  several  days  a  couple  of 
villages  which  a  dozen  sailors  might  have  captured  in  a  few  minutes. 
This  barbarous  proceeding  it  is  impossible  to  justify.  The  little 
difficulty  could  easily  have  been  arranged  by  Germany  and  Eng- 
land, but  this  did  not  apparently  suit  the  mood  of  the  Portuguese 
at  the  time.  Portugal  had  to  vent  her  wrath  on  some  power,  and 
she  did  it  by  shelling  a  couple  of  unprotected  villages  claimed  by 
tlie  much-bullied  Sultan  of  Zanzibar.  The  result  of  this  insig- 
nificant affair,  in  which  not  a  single  Portuguese  was  wounded, 
was  announced  in  a  series  of  magniloquent  dispatches  as  if  it  had 
been  Portsmouth  and  not  Tungi  Bay  which  had  been  the  scene  of 
operations.  As  those  wlio  suffered  most  were  British  Indian  sub- 
jects settled  on  the  Bay  for  trade,  intense  indignation  was  aroused 
by  this  act  on  the  part  of  Portugal,  h^or  damage  done  to  British 
subjects  by  the  bombardment  tlie  I'ritish  Goxernment  asked  that 
some  comj)ensation  might  be  paid.  This  was  curtly  refused,  and 
British  anti  Portuguese  relations  on  the  east  coast  became  strained. 
To  the  attitude  which  Portugal  assumed  on  this  occasion  may  to 
a  considerable  extent  be  attributed  tlie  uncompromising  stand  made 
by  England  at  a  later  date  on  the  Zambezi.  Portugal  insisted  on 
retaining  possession  of  Tungi  Bay,  and  claimed  all  north  as  far 
as  the  River  Rovuma,  the  boundary  named  in  defining  the  spheres 


138  AFRICA 

1886-1894 

of  influence  <>f  Gcnnany  and  I'orttii^^al.  Finally,  in  September, 
1894.  an  a.i^rcrnu'iit  was  readied  between  these  two  powers  by 
which,  while  'run.i^n  Hay  is  left  to  Portugal,  the  coast  north,  in- 
cluding t!ie  mouth  of  tlie  River  Rovuma,  is  regarded  as  German 
territory. 

In  the  midst  of  these  negotiations  a  difficulty  arose  between 
(lernianv  and  l-jigland  which  showed  that  the  Anglo-German  ar- 
rangement of  iSS()  had  not  settled  everything.  In  the  beginning 
i>f  1SS7  Stanlev  set  out  on  his  expedition  for  the  "relief"  of 
l-"miu  Fasha.  governor  of  tiie  equatorial  provinces  and  supposed 
to  be  beleaguered  by  the  Mahdi  in  Wadelai  on  the  Nile,  to 
llie  nortii  of  the  Albert  Nyanza.  Stanley  selected  the  Congo 
rdute,  and  it  was  l)elieved  would  return  by  the  east  coast.  The 
German  I-last  Africa  Company  took  alarm,  mainly  because  the 
ciiicf  muver  in  the  relief  expedition  was  "Mr.  William  Mackinnon, 
and  the  committee  was  mainly  composed  of  men  who  in  conjunc- 
tit  II  with  Mackinnon  had  about  the  same  time  formed  themselves 
i'ito  the  Britsh  F.ast  Africa  Company,  to  develop  the  sphere  re-, 
tained  for  l^jritish  influence  to  the  north  of  the  Kilimanjaro  line. 
The  (iermiin  company  became  apprehensive  that  vStanley  might  on 
]]]<  return  make  treaties  that  would  im])inge  upon  the  German 
"  Hinterland,"  and  ])ossibly  cut  that  company  off  from  Fake  Tan- 
ganyika. In  July  a  representation  was  made  to  that  effect 
to  Ford  Salisbury,  then  in  charge  of  the  foreign  interests  of  Fng- 
land.  Ford  Salisbury  assured  Prince  Bismarck  that  he  would 
Conclude  no  annexations  in  tlie  rear  of  the  German  s])liere,  and  that 
Germany  should  Ijc  allowed  a  free  hand  to  the  south  of  the  Vic- 
toria Xyanza.  He  still  left  the  r|uestion  of  the  precise  boundary 
between  tl.e  JMiglish  and  German  spheres  on  the  west  of  Victoria 
Xyanza  unsettled,  mid,  as  will  be  seen,  this  gave  occasion  for  diffi- 
culties in  the   future. 

The  Giernian  I^rist  Africa  Company,  of  which  Dr.  Peters  was 
still  the  head  and  nioxiiig  spirit,  lost  no  time  in  endeavoring  to 
reaj)  tlie  irui;--  of  i;s  treaties  .and  of  the  enormous  concessions  which 
tliC  (ieiniaii  GM\ernnient  had  f)btained  on  its  behalf.  And  here 
it  may  lie  iu>:t.-(\  tiiat  ilie  German  Colonization  Society,  which  Peters 
had  founded  as  a  -ort  of  rival  to  the  German  Colonial  Society, 
united  with  the  latter,  in  the  t-m]  of  18S7,  into  one  associati(jn  under 
the  latter  title.  S<-nie  nx-nths  before  this  the  German  Fast  Africa 
.■\>.M)ciat;'  n    li;td    been    inc  irjJDrated   by    iiiiperird    charter,    .and    was 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  139 

1885-1888 

now  in  a  position  to  combine  the  administration  of  its  cfomains 
with  territorial  supremacy.  During  1885  several  expeditions  were 
sent  out  partly  to  explore  in  various  directions,  and  to  collect 
precise  information — not  only  on  topography,  but  on  geology,  on 
climate,  soil,  and  vegetation — such  as  would  be  of  essential  service 
to  the  intelligent  development  of  the  country.  Branch  or  subor- 
dinate companies  were  formed,  such  as  the  East  Africa  Plantation 
Company  and  the  German  Planters'  Company,  for  the  special 
objects  indicated  by  their  names.  On  the  Pangani  and  Umba 
Rivers,  and  in  other  districts  near  the  coast,  plantations  were  es- 
tablished, and  by  1888  there  were  some  thirty  stations  of  the  kind. 
Houses  were  built,  the  ground  cleared,  coffee,  tobacco,  maize,  and  a 
variety  of  other  products  were  cultivated,  and  a  fair  beginning  of 
industry  and  trade  initiated.  The  tobacco  was  actually  exported 
to  Germany  and  met  with  a  favorable  reception.  There  was  no 
lack  of  labor  for  wages,  and  when  a  bargain  was  made  with  the 
natives  the  German  planters  kept  the  latter  stringently  to  it.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  admitted  by  the  Germans  themselves  that  slave 
labor  was  largely  employed  by  them.  But  the  English  missiona- 
ries, nevertheless,  felt  themselves  at  liberty  to  advise  the  natives 
to  deal  confidently  with  the  Germans.  The  English  mission  sta- 
tions were  carried  on  as  before,  while  the  missionary  societies  of 
Germany,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  zealously  joined  in  the 
work. 

By  this  time,  as  will  be  seen  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  the 
British  East  Africa  Company  had  begun  operations  and  had  leased 
from  the  sultan  the  strip  of  coast  over  which  his  authority  was 
recognized  between  the  German  territory  and  the  Tana.  The 
German  company  decided  to  follow  the  example,  and  succeeded 
in  making  the  Sultan  Khalifa,  who  in  March,  1888,  had  succeeded 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  Burghash,  lease  to  them  for  fifty  years 
the  whole  of  the  coast  territory  from  the  Rovuma  to  the  Umba, 
thus  giving  them  the  command  of  seven  ports  and  three  roadsteads. 
The  German  company  were  to  have  the  sole  administration  of  the 
district  and  the  collection  of  the  customs,  which  under  certain 
conditions  were  to  be  paid  over  to  the  sultan.  Dr.  Peters  had 
by  this  time  ceased  to  direct  the  company's  affairs  at  Zanzibar,  and 
under  the  new  regime  there  was  a  much  closer  connection  between 
the  comj)any's  officials  and  t!ic  Clernian  consulate.  A  school  for 
the  study  of  the  Swahili  language  was  at  once  established  at  Berlin, 


1  iO  A  y  RICA 

1888-1889 

and  cncrpctic  measures  taken  for  the  Cicrmanizing^  of  the  whole 
of  the  coast  towns.  A  stall  of  some  sixty  ofikials  was  sent  out 
to  carry  on  tlic  now  administration.  The  stations  estabHshed  in  the 
interior  hv  IVicrs  were  to  be  abandoned  or  given  over  to  the  mis- 
sionaries; to  the  comj)any  tliey  were  a  source  of  pfrcat  loss  and 
weakness.  .\  military  force  was  to  be  trained  and  distributed  on 
the  c(\a>t  reqi*  II.  and  additional  customs  stations  were  to  be  estab- 
lished. Ilerr  \'ohscn.  the  new  administrator,  informed  the  British 
consuI-jL^eneral.  Colonel  C.  Kuan  Smith,  who  had  succeeded  Sir 
John  Kirk,  that  the  German  company  would  follow  very  closely 
the  example  of  the  Britisli  company,  and  would  not  move  into 
the  interior  unless  the  latter  soug^ht  to  do  so.  Stringent  measures 
were  to  be  taken  to  discourage  the  slave-trade  carried  on  by  the 
Arabs  in  Central  Africa,  and  for  this  purpose  it  was  intended  to 
regulate  or  stop  the  importation  of  arms. 

It  must  be  said  that  the  British  consul-general  expressed  to 
the  directors  of  the  dcrman  company  his"  fear  that,  unless  great 
caution  were  exercised  in  effecting  the  transfer  from  the  sultan's 
to  the  German  administration,  the  consequences  might  be  serious, 
as  the  powerful  Arab  traders  and  chiefs  could  not  but  regard  the 
new  regime  with  suspicion;  for  they  imagined  tliat  it  might  seri- 
(uisly  interfere  with  their  peculiar  trade.  Smith's  fears  were  only 
too  speeilily  justified.  The  German  officials  took  over  adminis- 
tration on  August  iT),  1888;  and  on  the  21st  the  British 
Consul-general  telcgrajjhed  to  London  that  disturbances  were  re- 
])Mrtcd  from  Bagamoyo  and  Pangani ;  induced  in  the  first  instance 
by  indiscreet  conduct  with  reference  to  the  sultan's  flag.  Other 
indiscretions  followed  on  the  part  of  German  officials,  evidence  of 
inexijcrience  and  want  of  tact  in  dealing  with  the  natives.  By  the 
cikI  of  Se])tcmijer  the  whole  c<jast  population  was  up  in  arms, 
aga;n.-t  nf)i  only  the  Germans,  but  the  English;  by  the  end  of  the 
year  tl.ey  made  no  distinction  between  Germans  and  English; 
white  men  were  "all  robbers  alike." 

Unfortunately  the  German  officials  did  not  care  to  take  any 
steps  t(j  coyAiliate  tlie  natives;  their  j)olicy.  to  judge  from  their 
c  iiduct,  was  to  tretit  the  latter  as  a  concpiered  pecjple,  whose  feel- 
ing.-, it  W' •{]]']  he  alj>urd  to  consider.  A  leader  among  the  discon- 
tented natives  arose  in  tl;e  person  of  the  htdf-caste  chief  Bushiri, 
who  showed  :>u  intelligence,  determination,  and  resource  that  could 
not  but  compel  re-pect.     Germtmy  was  glad,  in  lier  need,  to  seek 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  141 

1889-1890 

the  co-operation  of  England,  and  a  blockade  was  established  all 
along  the  German  and  the  British  sections  of  coast  by  the  united 
fleets  in  Zanzibar  waters.  The  hatred  of  the  Germans  grew  more 
and  more  intense  and  some  of  the  native  tribes  took  an  oath  that 
they  would  eat  a  portion  of  the  bodies  of  any  Germans  that  might  be 
killed ;  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Arabs  were  the  instigators 
of  the  whole  movement.  Of  course  the  company  was  quite  unable 
to  cope  with  the  "  insurrection  "  which  it  had  deliberately  incited, 
and  the  direct  interference  of  the  imperial  government  was  neces- 
sary. In  the  beginning  of  1889  Captain  Hermann  von  Wissmann, 
who  had  twice  crossed  Africa,  and  done  eminent  service  for  the 
Congo  Free  State,  was  appointed  Imperial  Commissioner  in  East 
Africa.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  "  insurrection  "  all  the  German 
plantations  which  had  been  established  on  the  Pangani  and  else- 
were  were  abandoned,  and  everything  reduced  to  chaos ;  the  hun- 
dreds of  British  Indians,  in  whose  hands  was  the  principal  trade 
on  the  coast,  had  also  to  quit  their  houses  and  take  refuge  in  Zan- 
zibar. In  a  "White  Book,"  published  in  January,  1889,  the  con- 
duct of  the  German  company  was  severely  censured;  and  on  the 
30th  of  the  month  the  Reichstag  passed  a  vote  of  $500,000  "  for 
the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade  and  the  protection  of  German 
interests  in  East  Africa."  The  officials  of  the  company  were  placed 
under  the  command  of  Wissmann,  who,  moreover,  had  at  his  dis- 
posal about  a  thousand  native  troops,  trained  and  armed  with  the 
newest  weapons.  The  commissioner  had  sixty  German  officers 
and  soldiers  also,  and  the  co-operation  of  about  two  hundred  sailors 
from  the  German  navy.  Town  after  town  on  the  coast  was 
destroyed.  Bushiri  was  relentlessly  pursued,  and  his  adherents 
defeated  in  fight  after  fight.  It  was  not,  however,  until  December, 
1889,  that  Bushiri  himself  was  run  to  earth  and  executed  according 
to  martial  law.  This  practically  put  an  end  to  the  "  insurrection  " 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  German  sphere,  and  tlie  sultan  was 
constrained  to  proclaim  tliat  all  slaves  wlio  had  entered  his  terri- 
tories after  November  i  were  free.  But  it  was  the  middle  of 
1890  before  the  southern  coast  was  subdued,  and  the  rebel  chiefs 
of  Ukami  and  other  districts  in  the  interior  defeated,  and  German 
sovereignty  established  over  the  whole  sphere  from  Cape  Delgado 
to  the  River  Wami. 

There  was,  of  course,  no  longer  any  question  of  the  adminis- 
tration being  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  company,  which  in 


U2  AFUICA 

1889-1893 

Mnv.  i88<7.  had  Ikcii  incorporatctl  by  imperial  charter  as  a  purely 
conimercia!  association.  After  the  suppression  of  the  "  insurrec- 
tion." the  sultan's  ri.qhts  over  the  coast  were  bout^ht  for  a  sum  of 
$]  .000,000,  which,  however,  under  various  pretexts,  was  consider- 
ablv  reduced.  Tlie  purchase  was  made  in  the  name  of  the  (icrman 
b'ast  Africa  Socictv.  to  which  the  government  by  aj^freement,  Xo- 
vember.  iS()o.  ad\anced  a  loan  of  some  $2,600,000,  partly  to  pay 
the  sultan  and  partly  to  expend  in  the  improvement  and  develop- 
ment of  tlie  tcrritmy. 

The  adnn'nistration  is  now  entirely  in  the  hands  of  an  Im- 
perial Civil  Commissioner  appointed  by  the  German  Government, 
his  headquarters  being  at  Dar-es-Salaam.  Under  him  are  district 
(-"fhccrs  settled  in  the  ports  on  the  coast,  and  responsible  for  the 
traflic  to  and  from  the  interior.  The  total  area  thus  taken  over 
is  now  estimated  at  about  384.000  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  ab(nit  sc\en  millions.  Large  grants  are  annually  made  by  the 
imperial  government,  not  only  for  administration,  but  for  the 
construction  of  railways  into  the  interior  and  steamers  for  \''ic- 
toria  Xvanza.  In  1803  a  steamer  was  placed  on  T.ake  Nyasa  by 
the  German  Anti-Slavery  S(^ciety.  though  it  is  doubtful  how  far 
it  has  conducerl  to  the  suppression  of  slaverv.  In  the  meantime, 
with  remarkable  rapidity,  all  the  leading  coast  towns  have  been 
occupied  and  fortified.  Each  has  its  little  garrison  of  Sudanese  or 
I'^-ast  Africans,  under  European  orficcrs.  and  every  ]")recauti'in  is 
taken  to  render  their  immediate  environment  as  sanitary  as  possi- 
ble. The  garrisons  of  the  various  stations  do  not  spend  their  time 
in  idleness.  Road-making,  house-building,  and  otlier  useful  work 
is  being  continually  carried  on.  Large  herds  of  cattle  and  other 
domestic  animals  are  being  accumulated,  gardens  and  plantations 
cultivated,  buoys  laid  down,  lightliouses  erected,  and  these  ancient 
townii  fiu  the  East  African  coast  will  no  doubt  in  time  reach  a 
conditiMii  of  prosperity  quite  equal,  if  not  sujierior,  to  that  which 
the  Portncruc-e  fnnnd  to  exist  when,  over  four  hundred  years  ago, 
tliey  bcg.in  their  conquest  of  tlie  coast. 

'1  he  exanijjle  of  the  Germans  and  the  people  in  tlieir  service 
lias  hitherto  harl  fairly  satisfactory  results.  Their  uncompromis- 
itig  nii]';,-;ry  nie'l^nrls  may  or  may  not  in  tlie  long  run  be  those  best 
.■!d;i|)tcd  f  .r  <U-:>'\]vj  \\][h,  i],e  natives  of  Ontral  Africa.  Tlie  utter 
want  (<\  t:>('  cxliilir.cd  by  tlic  oftlrials  of  l];e  conijianv  was  no  doubt 
dej)l<rab]c.      i;iit.  .iiicc  the  n;:  lake   was  made   it   is  dilticult   to  sec 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  143 

1889-1893 

that  any  other  course  than  that  followed  by  the  German  Govern- 
ment could  have  been  adopted  to  cope  with  the  unfortunate  conse- 
quences; unless,  indeed,  the  coast  had  been  abandoned  indefinitely. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  it  was  the  Arabs  and  slave-dealing 
half-castes  that  were  the  real  instigators  of  the  "  insurrection," 
and  if  Germany  resolved  once  for  all  to  read  these  personages  a 
sharp  lesson,  it  is  difticult  to  see  how  the  policy  can  be  blamed, 
except  on  the  untenable  ground  that  Europe  has  no  right  in  Africa 
at  all.  Once  the  strife  was  o\ev,  Arabs  and  Indians  gathered  round 
the  old  towns  which  had  now  become  the  centers  of  German  power, 
and  built  solid  houses  and  settled  down  to  trade  and  to  plant  with 
more  confidence  than  ever.  In  this  way  the  coast  population  is 
steadily  increasing,  so  that  Bagamoyo,  which  was  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  war,  has  now  some  13,000  inhabitants,  Dar-es-Salaam 
13.000,  and  other  towns  in  proportion.  Even  the  streets  are 
lighted  at  night,  and  covered  market-places  have  been  erected.  Cer- 
tainly the  rapidity  with  which  the  Germans  have  established  them- 
selves in  the  countr}'-,  and  the  wonderful  progress  already  achieved, 
have  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  natives — Africans,  Arabs, 
and  Indians  alike — who  contrast  what  the  Germans  have  done  in 
five  years  with  the  little  accomplished  by  the  English  during  the  fifty 
years  they  were  supreme  at  Zanzibar,  forgetting  that  the  position 
of  the  latter  in  the  Sultan's  dominions  was  very  different  from  that 
of  the  former. 

Germany  has  not,  however,  contented  herself  with  squatting 
on  the  coast.  Expeditions  have  been  sent  out  in  various  directions, 
partly  for  the  purpose  of  prospecting,  partly  to  found  stations,  and 
partly  to  establish  German  supremacy  in  the  interior.  Emin 
Pasha,  who,  when  brought  to  the  coast  by  his  "  rescuer  "  Stanley, 
entered  the  service  of  Germany,  was  the  leader  of  one  of  these 
expech'tions.  He  made  his  way  to  the  Victoria  Xyanza,  on  the 
west  coast  of  which  he  establislied  a  station.  Another  expedition 
on  its  way  into  the  interior  encountered  a  horde  of  raiding  Wahehe, 
whose  country  lies  in  tlie  smith  of  the  German  sphere,  and  in  the 
fight  which  ensued  the  (icrnians  met  with  serious  losses.  Inci- 
dents like  these  are  to  be  expected  if  Germany  continues  to  pursue 
her  military  method  of  occupation.  It  is  premature  to  pronounce 
the  method  a  failure.  Hitherto  it  has  been  successful  in  so  far 
as  the  establishment  of  German  authority  in  the  coast  regions  is 
concerned.     The  conditions  of  the  interior  are  of  course  entirely 


m  AFRICA 

1893-1903 

(lifTereiif.  and  no  tlonl)t  the  CIcniKm  Government  will  take  care 
that  its  methods  of  occupation  are  a<lai)ted  to  these  conditions.  The 
gfrcat  objects  should  he  lo  induce  tlie  scanty  population  of  the  in- 
terit»r  to  settle  down  peacefully  to  the  development  of  whatever 
resonrces  the  country  possesses:  to  secure  the  safety  of  trading 
caravans:  and  in  acct)rdance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Brussels 
Congress  to  suppress  slave-raiding',  and  the  trafik  in  arms  and 
spirits.  In  the  carrying  out  of  these  objects  mistakes  may  be  made, 
a  tot)  rigiil  application  of  Clerman  military  methods  may  defeat 
the  pur|).'se  in  view:  but  if  these  are  adapted  to  the  peculiar  con- 
ditions t)f  tropical  Africa  and  the  lessons  of  experience  laid  to 
heart,  there  seems  no  reason  why  German  commerce  should  not 
be  a  great  gainer,  and  German  East  Africa  even  pay  its  own  way. 
I'p  to  the  i)resent  it  has  simply  been  a  drain  on  the  resources  of 
the  mother  country.  The  imperial  government,  by  direct  contri- 
butions, by  advancing  loans  to  the  company,  by  subvention  to  Ger- 
man steam  companies,  by  arrangements  with  other  powers,  has 
done  everything  it  could  to  promote  the  interests  of  German  East 
Africa. 

At  Tanga,  on  the  Pangani,  and  in  other  favorable  positions, 
j)Iantation  work  has  again  been  resumed  with  considerable  success, 
wliile  experimental  stations  are  being  established  for  the  benefit 
both  of  tlie  whites  and  natives.  Certainly  the  most  promising  part 
of  the  German  sphere  is  on  the  north  in  Usambara  and  on  the  slopes 
of  Kih'manjaro  and  the  plateau  on  the  south.  During  i893-i(S()4 
experiments  in  cofYee  plantations  met  with  great  success,  and  the 
culture  is  spreading.  Indeed  in  the  year  1903,  of  the  total  sixteen 
thousand  acres  under  actual  cultivation,  one-half  were  devoted  to 
coffee.  K\]Krimcnts  in  tea,  tobacco,  and  other  cultures  are  also 
bei'ig  made  by  the  German  East  yXfrica  Society  and  others.  Now 
tliat  the  rebe]li(nis  chiefs  on  Kilimanjaro  have  been  subdued,  at- 
tem])t-  have  been  made  to  plant  German  settlers  on  its  slopes.  The 
s'lutliern  district  is  much  more  backward.  The  soil  is  not  so  prom- 
i-^ing.  tlie  country  not  so  wholesome,  and  the  natives  have  proved 
\ery  tr> 'ul)leM>nie.  This  latter  difhculty  is  being  rapidly  removed, 
and  botli  in  the  north  and  the  south  (Germany  is  establishing  her 
authority  o\er  the  Jiatives  as  well  as  the  Arab  traders.  The  total 
value  of  the  ex])orts  of  German  I'^ast  Africa,  in  the  year  1901, 
wa^  about  S'i  ,1  ^D.ooo,  while  im|)()rts  amounted  to  about  $2,400,000. 

One  g(;.  id   re.suh   uf  ilie  disturbances   in   Ciernia:i    luist   ;\frica 


GERMAN     EAST     AFRICA  145 

1886-1903 

was  a  satisfactory  arrangement  between  Germany  and  Great  Brit- 
ain as  to  their  respective  spheres  in  that  part  of  the  continent. 
While  by  the  arrangement  of  1886  a  boundary  had  been  drawn  be- 
tween the  coast  and  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  region  to  the  west  of 
the  lake  was  regarded  by  enterprising  Germans  as  open  to  all 
comers  in  spite  of  the  proviso  that  Germany  would  not  seek  to 
make  acquisitions  on  the  south  of  the  lake.  As  will  be  seen  when 
we  come  to  deal  with  British  East  Africa,  determined  attempts 
had  been  made  by  Peters  and  his  friends  to  get  behind  the  British 
sphere  and  secure  all  the  lake  regions  for  Germany.  Had  matters 
proceeded  smoothly  and  peacefully  in  East  Africa,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  German  Government  might  have  lent  itself  to 
the  support  of  Peters's  schemes.  But  the  cooperation  of  England 
in  the  suppression  of  the  "  insurrection  "  was  so  necessary  and  was 
so  freely  given  that  it  was  felt  in  Berlin  that  Germany's  policy  was 
to  come  to  a  friendly  understanding  with  her  neighbor  in  East 
Africa  as  to  the  limits  of  their  respective  spheres.  England  fortu- 
nately had  an  islet,  Heligoland,  on  the  German  coast,  which  could 
never  really  be  of  much  use  to  her  unless  she  incurred  an  enormous 
expenditure  for  fortifications  and  harbors ;  this  islet  was  naturally 
coveted  by  Germany,  to  which  it  belonged  geographically.  By 
yielding  to  German  sentiment  in  this  matter  probably  England 
secured  better  terms  in  Africa  than  she  could  otherwise  have  done. 
Witu  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tana,  with  all  the  stretch  of  coast-line 
to  the  north,  which  it  was  maintained  had  been  acquired  by  Ger- 
man subjects,  was  left  within  the  British  sphere.  This  freed  the 
British  company  from  a  constant  cause  of  menace  and  trouble,  and 
did  away  with  a  fruitful  source  of  misunderstanding  between  the 
two  powers.  On  the  south,  England  was  not  quite  so  fortunate. 
The  German  boundary  line  was  drawn  along  tlie  River  Rovuma 
to  Lake  Xyasa,  which  so  far  affected  Portugal  alone.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  lake,  however,  while  the  line  between  the  German  and 
the  British  spheres  was  drawn  so  as  to  include  the  Stevenson  road, 
which  runs  innn  Lake  Xyasa  to  Lake  Tanganyika,  with  the  British 
sphere,  the  rich  C(iuntry  to  the  northwest  of  the  former  lake,  on 
which  British  missionaries  had  been  at  work  for  years,  was  placed 
in  the  German  sj)herc.  But  with  such  cn(jrmous  areas  at  the  dis- 
posal of  each  nation,  a  little  lake  paradise  of  this  description  cannot 
make  much  difference  cither  way.  The  western  limit  of  Germany 
was  of  course  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 


1  ir>  A  I'  H  1  C  A 

1891-1906 

This — fi>llo\vc(l  as  it  shortly  was  by  the  acceptance  of  a  Brit- 
isli  protectorate  over  the  ishmds  of  Zanzibar  and  rcmba,  all  that 
was  left  unallotted  of  the  Sultan's  domains — put  an  end  to  any  risk 
(^f  serious  niisunderstamlinfr  between  dermany  and  England  as 
to  their  respective  spheres  in  b-ast  Africa,  It  left  the  mercantile 
companies  i>f  the  two  nations  to  the  development  by  fair  competi- 
tion of  the  resources  of  their  respective  spheres,  in  which  there  is 
room  enough  for  rivalry,  dermany.  it  must  be  said,  is  somewhat 
handicapped  by  lier  neighbors.  Several  oUl  trade-routes  pass 
through  her  spliere;  but  with  the  facilities  for  transit  which  exist 
by  means  ol  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Xyasa.  the  Shire  and  the 
/-•unbc/i.  nuich  of  the  trade  of  the  center  of  the  continent  may  be 
diverted  into  the  British  sphere.  Dating  from  April  i,  1891,  a 
civil  governor  has  been  placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of 
(lerman  Kast  Africa,  and  to  him  the  military  power  is  subordinate. 
It  is  certainly  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  total  number  of 
nati\c  troojis  em])loye(l  for  the  defense  of  German  b'.ast  Africa  is 
ijCK^.  trained  by  a  large  number  of  EurojKan  officers  and  non-ccjm- 
missioned  officers.  Considerably  over  (Mie-half  of  tlie  annual  ex- 
i'cn<liture  in  this  possession  is  contributed  by  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment. 


Chapter   XIII 

THE    STRUGGLE   FOR   THE   NIGER.    1817-1910 

IT  has  already  been  seen  that  during  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  European,  and  it  may  be  said,  American, 
activity  was  mainly  confined  to  the  west  coast,  between  Cape 
Blanco  and  St.  Paul  de  Loanda ;  that  this  activity  was  centered  in 
the  slave-trade;  that  on  the  abolition  of  the  latter  the  British 
west  coast  colonies  were  neglected  and  despised,  and  all  advance 
to  the  interior  discouraged ;  while  the  French,  on  the  other  hand, 
never  lost  sight  of  the  Niger  and  Timbuktu  as  their  goal.  British 
traders  had  been  settled  on  the  Oil  Rivers  since  the  old  slave-trade 
days,  and  British  enterprise  forty  years  ago  attempted,  amid  much 
disaster,  to  open  up  the  Lower  Niger  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  It 
was  also  through  British  money  and  initiative,  making  use  of 
German  skill  and  perseverance,  that  the  northern  and  eastern  regions 
of  the  Niger  basin  were  explored  by  Dr.  Barth  in  1850-1853.  About 
the  middle  of  the  century,  as  we  have  seen,  fresh  impulse  was  given 
to  French  operations  from  the  Senegal  coast  toward  the  Upper 
Niger.  Expeditions  pushed  on  toward  the  interior,  subduing  tribes, 
and  making  treaties  of  protection  with  them  one  after  another. 
Up  to  1880,  however,  French  influence  in  the  interior  may  be 
said  to  have  been  assured  at  only  a  few  isolated  posts. 

After  the  death,  in  18 17,  of  the  great  Moslem  missionary  con- 
queror Othman,  a  sheik  of  the  remarkable  peoples  known  as  Fulah, 
the  extensive  "  empire  "  which  he  had  established,  extending  from 
near  Lake  Chad  on  the  east  to  the  borders  of  llie  Atlantic  on  the 
west,  was  broken  up  into  a  number  of  independent  but  still  powerful 
states.  Sokoto  and  Gando  fell  to  his  two  sons,  while  the  countries 
to  the  west  of  the  Niger  became  still  further  broken  up.  When, 
therefore,  France  resumed  with  determined  vigor  her  task  of  ob- 
taining supremacy  from  tlie  Atlantic  to  the  Niger,  she  had  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  a  series  of  detached  and  independent  native 
states,  extending  from  the  north  of  the  Senegal  to  the  source  of  the 
Niger,  most  of  them  either  completely  Moslem,  or  at  least  with 

147 


1  Wi  AFRICA 

1817-1853 

fanatic  Mi^slcms  as  their  rulers.  The  Fulah  were  and  arc  the 
paramount  people  in  the  hilly  country  of  the  Futa  Jallon,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Senegal,  and  the  country  of  Massina,  though  as 
a  matter  of  fact  they  arc  found  all  over  the  Niger  basin.  In  their 
purest  stale  they  are  not  negro,  but  are  immigrants  from  the  East. 
The  bulk  of  the  natives,  however,  are  JMandingoes  (negroes),  who 
under  various  names,  as  Bamharras,  Mahinkis,  Senufs,  etc.,  are 
spread  over  the  \vlu)le  region,  merging  to  the  north  into  the  races 
Nvhich   peoi)le   the   Sahara.     One   of  the  most    formidable  of  the 


native  chiefs  whom  tlie  French  had  to  encounter  was  Ahmadu,  son 
of  I^l-Haj-Omar,  who  in  the  fifties  and  sixties  extended  his  fanat- 
ical sway  over  most  of  the  country  from  Dingueray,  on  the  east 
of  Futa  Jallon,  to  Kaarta,  on  the  north  of  the  Upper  Senegal. 
After  the  fatlier's  death  his  "  empire  "  was  broken  up,  and  Ahmadu 
reigned  over  tliat  portion  which  lay  between  the  middle  of  the 
I'pjjcr  Niger  aiul  ilic  Upper  Senegal.  Still  more  formidable  was 
the  powerful  Samory  (or  Saniadu),  who  had  risen  from  a  humble 
origin  Uj  be  lord  of  all  the  regimi  on  the  Upper  Niger.  The  Futa 
Jallon  cnintry  still  jjrotested  against  French  domination,  and 
coquetted  with  liiiglruid.     Jiast  oi  the  Niger  were  states  of  more  or 


STRUGGLE     FOR     THE     NIGER  149 

1880-1886 

less  importance,  like  Wasulu,  Kong,  Massina,  Mossi,  and  others, 
some  of  them  Mohammedan,  some  of  them  pagan.  Most  of  them 
possessed  armies  more  or  less  organized,  and  more  or  less  animated 
by  Moslem  fanaticism,  and  a  determination  to  prevent  France  from 
securing  a  permanent  footing  on  the  Niger.  As  for  Timbuktu, 
it  was,  as  it  had  been  for  many  years,  practically  independent,  an 
entrepot  for  trade  between  the  Sudan  and  the  Mediterranean,  but 
far  from  holding  the  important  place  which  is  ascribed  to  it  in  the 
early  days  of  Mohammedan  domination  in  the  Sudan. 

In  1880  a  great  series  of  military  campaigns  by  the  French, 
combined  with  political  and  scientific  missions,  resulted  in  conquests 
on  a  much  larger  scale  than  before.  Captain  Gallieni,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  laying  down  an  interior  railway  route,  traversed  the  country 
between  Medina  and  the  Upper  Niger.  It  was  only,  however,  after 
long  negotiations  and  the  taking  of  Kita  that  Gallieni  succeeded  in 
signing  at  Nango,  with  King  Ahmadu,  a  treaty  (March  21,  1881) 
which,  it  was  maintained,  gave  to  France  the  protectorate  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Upper  Niger.  Notwithstanding  the  attacks  of 
the  powerful  Samory,  the  French  maintained  their  position.  In 
1 885- 1 886  Colonel  Frey  renewed  hostilities  with  Samory,  with 
whom  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  1886,  and  at  the  same  time 
this  officer  had  to  suppress  a  fanatical  Mussulman  insurrection.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Gallieni,  who  in  1887  induced  King  Ahmadu  to 
sign  a  treaty  which  placed  the  territories  of  that  chief  under  French 
protection.  It  was  under  Gallieni  that  the  railway  from  Kayes  to 
Balfoulabe  on  the  Upper  Senegal  was  completed — a  railway  in- 
tended to  join  that  river  with  the  Upper  Niger.  It  receives  a 
yearly  subsidy  to  prevent  its  being  buried  beneath  the  sands  of  the 
Sudan.  Under  Gallieni,  also,  a  treaty  in  the  same  year  was  con- 
cluded with  Samory  modifying  that  of  1886  and  making  over  to 
French  protection  the  left  bank  of  the  Tankisso  (a  western  tributary 
of  the  Upper  Niger)  from  its  source,  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Upper 
Niger  itself  from  the  junction  of  the  Tankisso  down  to  Bammako 
(130  miles).  Also  under  the  same  commander.  Lieutenant  Caron, 
on  board  the  gunboat  Niger,  navigated  the  river  for  some  miles 
below  Bammako  to  Kabara,  the  port  of  Timbuktu,  but  was  com- 
pelled, owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  population,  to  return  without 
accomplishing  anything.  Timbuktu,  which  better  knowledge  has 
reduced  from  an  immense  city  of  200,000  inhabitants  to  a 
comparatively  insignificant  town  of  10,000,  still  dazzled  the  French 


150  AFRICA 

1881-1891 

iinnjjlnation  as  the  center  of  tltc  Moslem  civilization  and  the  riches 
of  the  Siitlaii. 

In  i88v^  e\pl(Miiij^  expeditions  were  sent  nut  in  all  directions 
hv  Gallieiii,  ami  a  mass  «)l  information  thus  collected  was  of  the 
greatest  use  in  carryini:^  out  further  annexations.  Captain  Gallieni 
was  specially  anxious  to  ohtain  a  firm  footing  in  the  Futa  Jallon, 
which,  to  the  northeast  of  Sierra  Leone,  f<jrmed  for  France  the 
connectin.c^  link  hctween  her  posts  on  the  Upper  Niger  and  her 
establishments  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  mountainous  region, 
from  the  commercial,  ihe  military,  and  the  sanitary  point  of  view, 
was  justly  regarded  as  a  desirable  possession. 

A  treaty  was  made  in  t88i  with  Dr.  P.ayol  by  the  Almamy 
of  Futa  Jallon.  though  the  tribe  did  not  take  kindly  to  French  pro- 
tection, and  even  made  overtures  to  Fngland ;  but  the  success  of 
Gallieni  decided  the  Almamy  to  take  the  prudent  course  of  submis- 
sion. In  1887  he  signed  a  treaty  placing  all  his  country  under  the 
exclusive  protection  of  France.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Upper 
Xiger  the  work  of  treatv-making,  as  well  as  of  exploration,  was 
carried  out  in  1888-1890  by  Captain  Binger,  who  traversed  mucli 
of  tiie  region  within  the  great  bend  of  the  Xiger,  starting  from 
liammako  and  zigzagging  until  he  reached  the  Guinea  coast.  Cap- 
tain Binger  made  treaties  bv  which  the  countries  of  Tieba,  Kong, 
Jimini,  Anno,  and  Bondoko  are  placed  under  French  protection. 
These,  witli  other  treaties  made  about  the  same  time,  unite  the 
ciiluny  of  Grand  Bassam  on  the  Guinea  coast  with  the  French  pos- 
sessions on  tlie  Upper  Xiger.  In  1891  France  declared  her  annexa- 
tion of  the  strip  of  coast  between  Liberia  and  Grand  Bassam.  There 
is  thus  a  solid  block  of  French  territory  all  the  way  from  the 
coast  01  Senegal  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  shutting  out  from  the 
interior  the  colonies  of  Fngland  and  Portugal  and  the  state  of 
Liberia,  b^encli  Guinea  has  advanced  with  considerable  rapidity  of 
late  year-,  and  its  capital.  Conakry,  already  vies  with  I'rcc-Town. 
kailrtjad  b'.iilding  on  an  ambitious  plan  commenced  in  igoo.  The 
eastern  boundary  of  Binger's  acquisitions  is  the  Black  Volta.  which, 
joining  the  Red  and  the  White  Volta  farther  east,  forms  part  of 
tlie  b'  nndary  lieiueen  Ashanti  and  the  Gold  Coast  colony  on  the 
one  hand,  and  (German  Togoland  on  the  other.  Captain  Binger, 
morco\er.  eiUered  imo  relations  with  Salaga,  about  two-thirds  of 
the  <I:~'anie  ijetueen  the  Guinea  Coast  and  Timbuktu.  By  the 
Anglo-i  rencli  agreement  of  Augu-t.   1889,  l'"rance  has  no  right  tu 


STRUGGLE     FOR     THE     NIGER  151 

1890-1898 

come  south  of  the  9th  degree  of  north  latitude  in  the  rear  of  the 
Gold  Coast  colony.  She  has  the  whole  of  the  Upper  Niger  and  the 
great  bend  that  sweeps  round  by  Timbuktu,  with  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  area  embraced  within  the  bend. 

The  French  hold  on  the  Upper  Niger  was  still  further  tight- 
ened by  the  campaigns  of  1 890-1 891,  under  Colonel  Archinard,  who 
captured  Sego,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  below  Bammako,  and 
in  January,  1891,  Nioro,  the  capital  of  Kaarta,  thus  partially  de- 
stroying the  power  of  Ahmadu,  who,  notwithstanding  former 
treaties,  was  unwilling  to  resign  his  independence.  He  was  the 
great  obstruction  on  the  way  to  Timbuktu  and  Lake  Chad  on  the 
one  side,  and  to  Futa  Jallon  on  the  other.  Colonel  Archinard,  in 
April,  1 89 1,  sent  the  troublesome  Samory  flying  toward  the  south 
and  occupied  his  capital.  But  the  trouble  with  this  chief  did  not 
end  until  late  in  1898,  when  his  capture,  with  all  his  army,  com- 
pleted, according  to  Fallot,  "  the  conquest  and  final  pacification 
of  the  Sudan." 

By  an  arrangement  concluded  in  August,  1894,  the  boundaries 
between  Liberia  and  the  territory  claimed  by  France  were  agreed 
upon.  This  difficulty  having  been  settled,  vigorous  measures  were 
taken  to  bring  the  troublesome  Samory  into  complete  subjection. 
In  1894  Colonel  Monteil  entered  upon  a  campaign  from  the 
Guinea  Coast;  but  his  progress  was  so  hampered  by  the  natives, 
and  his  conduct  of  the  expedition  so  unsatisfactory,  that  in  Febru- 
ary, 1895.  he  was  recalled.  No  doubt  the  French  operations  will 
be  facilitated  by  the  telegraph  which  has  been  constructed  to  the 
Upper  Niger.  It  is  not  France  alone  whose  advances  in  West 
Africa  have  been  thv^-arted  by  this  chief;  he  has  proved  trouble- 
some also  to  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone.  The  necessity 
for  repelling  his  hostile  incursions  led  in  the  end  of  December,  1893, 
to  a  collision,  tlirough  mistake,  between  an  Fnglish  and  a  French 
expedition,  which  resulted  in  serious  losses  on  both  sides.  A  few 
weeks  later  a  similar  collision  took  place,  happily  without  such 
disastrous  results.  These  unfortunate  occurrences  seem  to  have 
been  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  uncertainty  existed  as  to  the  fron- 
tier between  Fnglish  and  French  territory  in  this  region. 

French  expeditions,  jiartly  cxjjlnratory,  partly  military  and 
])olitical,  continue  to  traverse  tlic  country  between  the  coast  and 
the  Upper  Niger,  one  of  tlieni  being  for  tlie  survey  of  a  railway 
route  between  the  Upper  Niger  and  the  ccxast ;    as  the  railway  in- 


152  AFUICA 

1829-1893 

tended  to  0(Minect  flic  Senct^al  and  tlic  Xigcr  is  practically  useless. 
Other  expeditions  followeil  in  the  footsteps  of  P>ingcr;  one,  under 
Captain  Monteil.  having  for  its  object  to  push  on  to  Say  on  the 
Midille  Xiger.  and  thence  to  Lake  Chad,  succeeded  in  accomplishing 
its  o!)ject  and  crossed  the  desert  to  Tripoli.  Others  will  be  referred 
to  later  on.  The  evident  object  of  them  all  has  been  to  sweep  into 
the  l-Vench  sphere  the  whole  of  the  Niger  and  Chad  regions. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  event  in  recent  years  has  been  the 
entry  of  the  I'Vcncli  into  Timbuktu  in  the  last  days  of  December, 
1893.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  column  under  Colonel  Bonnier. 
But  the  occupation  was  not  unattended  with  disaster.  While  the 
inhabitants  of  Timbuktu  were  apparently  resigned  to  the  position, 
the  Tuarcgs  in  the  country  around  were  fiercely  hostile.  One  party 
of  I'Vench  troops  was  surprised  at  some  distance  from  Timbuktu 
and  almost  annihilated.  Other  hostile  manifestations  were  made, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  French  will  hold  tlieir  place,  and 
retain  possession  of  the  city  which  has  been  their  goal  for  so  long. 
The  Tuaregs  have  been  severely  punished  for  their  successful  sur- 
prises, several  tribes  having  been  almost  destroyed. 

This  French  dream  of  a  great  empire  in  Africa,  stretching 
without  interruption  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Congo,  receivcil 
a  severe  check,  though  it  was  by  no  means  absolutely  defeated,  by 
a  few  British  merchants  inspired  and  led  by  one  clear-sighted,  de- 
termined, public-spirited  man.  Sir  George  Taubman  Goldie.  an 
ex-oftlcer  of  the  Royal  Fnginecrs.  who  had  first  visited  the  Niger 
in  1877.  The  old  relations  of  England  with  the  Oil  Rivers,  an 
intricate  network  of  streams  partly  fonuing  the  Xiger  delta  and 
partly  in(lc])cndenl  creeks,  have  already  been  referred  to.  It  has 
also  been  sliown  tliat  after  the  discovery  of  the  course  of  the  Lower 
Xigcr  in  1829.  the  Tiritish  Go\ernmcnt.  as  well  as  private  indi- 
viduals, from  1840  to  t86o.  endeavored  to  develop  the  navigation 
and  trade  of  the  river,  but  that  these  attempts  ended  only  in  disaster 
and  failure.  Traders  belonging,  for  the  most  ])art.  to  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow  still  continued  their  factories  on  the  Oil  Rivers,  on  some 
of  uhicli  Rritisli  missir)ns  liave  been  settled  for  over  half  a  century. 
Tlie-e  trridcrs  had  no  direct  connection  with  the  interior,  their 
hii-inc-s  being  cMnduficd  on  the  coast-line  through  native  middle- 
men who  barrcil  the  way  inland.  After  the  abolition  of  tlie  slave- 
trade  it  tofik  -"me  time  to  induce  tlie  natives  to  settle  down  to  legiti- 
mate  traftic.      G:a(hial!y  ihc  trade   in   palm   oil  and   latterly  palm 


I  \     I  II  K   1  I  ir  N  I  m    111'    I  11 1;    II  ■  \i 


A    (  aravaii    i> 


tlieir    ini-^-'.u     ii     lii-     Chief 


lir^t     I..    ri-i..pr!    mh 


!\:intir.-^    '>;    Alhcvt    Ruhtcr 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     153 

1840-1852 

kernels  developed,  and  as  the  articles  given  in  exchange — spirits, 
guns  and  powder,  cotton,  and  other  goods — were  of  the  cheapest 
character,  great  profits  were  made.  Still  the  great  river,  the  finest 
navigable  highway  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  which  comes  out 
to  the  Atlantic  in  the  center  of  the  Oil  Rivers,  remained  neglected 
as  a  commercial  route,  the  native  chiefs  themselves  putting  every 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  its  utilization.  After  the  British  Govern- 
ment ceased  to  send  out  or  subsidize  expeditions,  over  a  quarter  of 
a  century  ago,  several  enterprising  firms  established  permanent 
trading  stations  on  the  Niger  at  their  own  cost  and  risk.  Mac- 
gregor  Laird  was  the  pioneer  in  this  new  enterprise.  As  far  back 
as  1852  he  entered  the  region  determined  to  secure  it  for  British 
trade,  and  though  his  station  was  destroyed  by  the  natives  and  death 
terminated  his  w^ork,  he  had  paved  the  way  for  others.  The  most 
successful  of  these  pioneers  was  Mr.  James  Alexander  Croft,  known 
as  the  "  Father  of  the  Niger,"  whose  efforts  during  fifteen  years 
had  much  to  do  in  opening  up  the  great  river  to  traders.  But 
no  solid  basis  for  wide  extension  or  for  the  protection  of  British 
interests  could  be  expected  from  the  isolated  and  conflicting  efforts 
of  individual  traders  and  firms  with  very  limited  capital,  in  a 
region  where  all  was  chaos,  arising  from  generations  of  intertribal 
wars  and  continuous  slave-raids.  On  tlie  lower  Niger  the  natives 
are  all  pagans  and  barbarians,  though  the  river  is  the  key  to  the 
semi-civilized  and  populous  states  of  the  Central  Sudan.  While  the 
visits  of  the  one  or  two  white  agents  to  these  barbarians  had  some 
good  influence,  the  constant  rivalry  between  the  various  firms  and 
the  intrigues  and  counter-intrigues  among  their  colored  agents 
made  all  progress  impossible. 

Even  at  the  three  or  four  points  where  alone  Europeans  ven- 
tured to  establish  stations,  fre([uent  outrages  occurred  on  the  part 
of  turbulent  and  indolent  natives,  wlio  overawed  their  more  indus- 
trious and  peaceful  tribesmen;  while  directly  any  trilje  with  com- 
mercial instincts  acquired  a  modicum  of  wealth,  this  became  tlie 
motive  for  attack  by  more  warlike  neighbors,  so  that  the  only 
result  of  their  prudence  and  industry  was  the  loss  of  such  property 
as  they  had  acquired.  Tliey  were  fortunate,  too,  if  they  were  not 
carried  off  as  slaves  into  tlie  bargain.  At  rare  intervals  a  British 
gunboat  would  ascend  the  main  river  a  short  distance  during  the 
high  Niger,  jjombard  tlie  stick  or  clay  houses  on  the  banks,  and 
then  hurry  back  to  the  sea  with  half  the  crew  down  with  fever; 


m*  Al'IUCA 

1879-1882 

then  the  nativc>=.  \vlui  lind  retired  to  a  safe  distance  from  tlie  river, 
wtniltl  rctiiiii.  rehiiilil  tlitir  liouscs.  and  rcconinicncc  their  pievioiis 
con(hut,  kiunvini;^  that  tlieir  houses  were  safe  for  another  twelve 
months. 

In  1870.  however,  all  the  British  interests  on  the  Nigfer  River 
were  amali^^aniated  into  the  United  African  Company.  There  were 
at  that  time  no  other  lundpcans  on  the  river.  From  that  time,  under 
the  inthience  i^\  Sir  r.cor.i^e  Cioldie.  it  was  resolved  to  try  to  keep 
the  peace  ammij^  the  hundreds  of  heteroi^eneous  trihes  hy  weldini^ 
them  into  a  hcmoe^enetms  state,  and  to  ohtain  a  charter  for  the 
administration  of  the  district.  On  applying-  to  the  government  in 
1S81.  the  first  dilViculty  raised  was  that  the  capital  of  the  company 
was  too  small.  To  meet  this,  the  capital  was  increased  from 
$6j5,(:>oo  to  $5,000,000:  the  company  was  thrown  ojjcn  to  the 
public,  and  the  name  changed  to  the  National  .Vfrican  Company. 
Even  then  (i88j)  the  prospectus  of  the  company  announced  as 
tlieir  aim  the  establishing  of  direct  relati(Mis  with  the  great  and 
powerful  kingdoms  of  Sokoto  and  Gando  and  the  states  of  the 
Chad  basin.  The  conijxmy  :jt  once  experienced  an  immense  de- 
\elopment.  Xew  stations  were  established,  steamers  and  launches 
were  sent  out.  oj)crations  were  pushed  farther  and  farther  up  both 
tlie  .\iger  and  its  great  tributary,  the  Benue.  and  preparations  made 
for  the  expected  charter. 

Meanwliile.  under  the  inspiration  of  Gambetta.  French  traders 
began  to  creep  into  the  Lf)wer  Niger,  and  two  French  companies 
were  loniicd.  tlieir  patent  intention  i)einf^  t(^  secure  the  Lower  and 
Middle  Niger  and  the  Benue  for  F^rance.  whose  militarv  agents  by 
(httcrcnt  tactics  were  rapidly  making  their  way  to  absorb  the  upper 
river.  One  ni  these  c<)nipanics  had  a  capital  of  $800,000  and  the 
I  t'ler  if  .^^3.000, 000.  .Station  after  station  was  established,  until 
tl:erc  were  ^.^metliing  like  thirty  of  these  ])lanted  on  the  lower 
r:-.tr.  All  tliis  had  proved  a  complete  l)arrier  to  the  issue  of  a 
I'.ritisli  charter,  a-^  France  would  have  justly  and  effectually  pro- 
tected again-t  -^nch  .a  course.  If  this  state  of  things  had  continued 
the  entire  reg:  n  would  have  been  lost  to  England,  which  had  done 
•~o  mucli  ]<,]-  its  exploration  and  its  commercial  development.  The 
Minati'  n  \va-  certainly  critical  and  trying,  but  tlie  ever-watchful 
GmMjc  v. as  e'jual  to  the  emergency.  The  British  company  greatly 
uicrea.-^ed  tlieir  >taff,  niultii)1ie<l  tlieir  stations,  and  lavished  their 
g«H;(I.-,   in   presents,   in   rjrder  t<j   prevent   the   native   tribes   making 


STRUGGLE     FOR     THE     NIGER  155 

1884-1885 

treaties  with  the  French ;  moreover,  by  intense  competition  they 
greatly  enhanced  the  cost  of  the  native  products  which  formed  the 
commodities  of  trade.  In  this  way,  after  a  costly  struggle,  the 
losses  of  the  French  companies  became  so  serious  that,  after  the 
fall  of  Gambetta,  both  of  them  were  induced  to  retire  from  the  Niger, 
being  partly  bought  out  in  cash  or  shares  by  the  British  company, 
who  have  still  French  shareholders  on  their  list  with  holdings 
amounting  to  $300,000.  The  final  deeds  of  transfer  were  signed 
only  a  few  days  before  the  meeting  of  the  Berlin  Conference,  when 
the  British  plenipotentiary  was  able  to  announce  that  no  nation 
but  England  had  any  interests  on  the  Lower  Niger. 

No  sooner  had  this  danger  been  gotten  rid  of  than  another, 
quite  as  serious,  threatened  the  company.  The  events  at  the 
Cameroons  associated  with  the  name  of  Dr.  Nachtigal  will  be  re- 
membered, and  how  it  was  only  under  the  incitement  of  panic 
that  England  kept  her  hold  on  the  Oil  Rivers  region,  which  was 
declared  a  British  protectorate  in  July,  1884.  But  the  Central 
Sudan  was  still  unsecured  by  any  treaty  or  declaration  of  protec- 
tion, and  Germany  was  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  this.  The 
feeling  against  England  at  the  time  was  intensely  bitter  in  Ger- 
many, and  every  possible  means  was  adopted  to  hamper  British 
operations  in  Africa.  In  April,  1885,  Flegel.  under  the  auspices 
of  the  German  African  vSociety  and  the  German  Colonial  Society, 
left  Berlin  for  the  Niger  with  intentions  that  were  obvious.  But 
the  National  African  Company,  having  become  aware  in  time  of 
the  German  intentions  and  of  the  projected  scheme,  had  already 
taken  steps  to  secure  its  position  on  the  upper  river.  Mr.  Joseph 
Thomson  had  returned  in  1884,  much  shattered  in  health,  from 
his  successful  expedition  into  the  ATasai  Land.  Before  the  meeting 
of  the  Berlin  Conference,  Sir  George  Goklie  engaged  liim  to  pro- 
ceed up  the  Niger  and  secure  all  the  country  on  its  banks  by  treaty. 
His  departure  was  delayed  by  illness,  but  as  soon  as  he  was  able 
he  set  out  on  his  all-important  mission,  and  even  before  Flegel  left 
Berlin,  he,  in  March,  1885.  was  entering  the  mouth  of  the  Niger. 
With  a  speed  that  was  marvelous  but  characteristic,  Thomson  made 
his  way  up  the  Niger  to  Sokoto  and  Gando,  concluded  treaties  with 
the  sultans,  and  secured  tlie  allegiance  to  the  company  of  their 
great  empires.  As  Thomson  returned  to  the  coast  triumphant,  he 
met  Flegel  on  his  way  up  on  a  fruitless  errand. 

The  company  could  now  show  some  three  hundred  treaties 


156  AFUIC'A 

1885-1900 

with  native  diicfs.  sccurini::  to  them  the  whole  of  the  river-territory 
up  to.  ami  they  hclicvcd  iiichulinp,  Burruni  at  the  northeast  anj^le 
of  the  Xij^er  hciul.  Immediately  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
flaj^  the  company  had  ui\i;c!illy  renewed  their  appeals  for  a  royal 
charter  which  would  not  only  leave  them  nnohstrncted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  their  immense  territory',  but  secure  the  splendid 
hisfhway  and  the  ret^ion  to  which  it  gave  access  for  England;  hut 
the  issue  of  a  charter  was  again  delayed  until  July.  1886,  chiefly 
owing  to  scrui)k's  in  high  quarters  as  to  the  possibility  of  granting 
a  charter  over  territories  which,  owing  to  the  Berlin  Conference, 
had  to  be  placed  under  British  protection.  At  last,  however,  the 
whole  of  the  navigable  part  of  this  great  commercial  highwav.  and 
its  almost  ecjually  great  tributary,  the  Bcnue,  were  definitely 
secured  for  England,  and  the  National  African  Company  became 
the  Royal  Niger  Company,  of  which  Sir  George  Goldie  (the  real 
creator  of  the  company)  was  vice-governor.  In  1895  the  com- 
pany had  about  forty  settlements.  An  elaborate  system  of  justice 
and  administration  had  been  established,  while  there  was  as  little 
interference  as  possible  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  native  states. 
There  was  a  military  force  of  about  1000  men,  with  headquarters 
at  L(;koja.  and  of  course  scattered  over  the  territories  a  consider- 
able staff  of  white  officials  with  great  numbers  of  colored  assistants, 
wlu)  are  educated  natives  of  the  West  Coast  colonies,  and  to  whose 
hearty  cooperation  and  excellent  work  the  company  have  acknowl- 
edged tliat  much  of  their  success  is  due.  By  January  i.  1900.  the 
time  seemed  ripe  for  imperial  assumption  of  the  com])any's  terri- 
tories: on  this  date  the  latter  surrendered  its  cliartcr.  and  its 
possessions  became  what  is  now  known  as  Nigeria.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  country  is  pr(x:ee(ling  apace,  though  tlie  trade  is  so  far 
entirely  in  fibers,  gums,  ivory,  kernels,  palm  oil.  pei)iK'rs.  rubber, 
and  other  natural  products.  But.  as  far  as  the  deadly  climate 
admits,  experiments  are  being  made  on  a  considerable  scale  with 
C'dTee.  C'/coa,  .and  c;tlier  introduced  cultures,  and  measures  are 
mennuliile  being  taken  to  make  the  most  of  the  natural  forest  and 
otlier  ])ro(hRts.  without  exhausting  them, 

()i  course  the  brief  career  of  tlie  Royal  Niger  Cf^npanv  was 
not  witliout  troubles  -Aud  ditViculties.  It  could  not,  as  a  government, 
c\|)cnil  m  ire  than  it  raised  by  taxation,  and  as  it  was  not  prac- 
ticable to  tax  the  nati\es.  the  administrati\e  re\enue  de])en(led  on 
custuiua  dutie.-^;  while  the  volume  of  trade,  though  growing  rapidly, 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     157 

1885-1900 

was  insignificant  compared  with  the  area  occupied.  The  company- 
had,  moreover,  to  contend  with  vigorous  and  state-supported  for- 
eign aggression,  and  could  only  obtain  the  money  for  the  struggle 
by  a  high  customs  tariff.  Unfortunately  for  imperial  interests,  this 
policy  raised  a  great  outciy,  not  only  in  Gennany  and  France, 
which  naturally  desired  to  cripple  the  resources  of  their  most  active 
rival  in  West  Africa,  but  also  in  Liverpool.  A  powerfully  organ- 
ized agitation  against  the  company  was  carried  on  for  some  years 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  Prince  Bismarck,  after  dispatching  his 
nephew,  Herr  von  Puttkamer,  to  the  Niger  as  an  imperial  com- 
missioner, fulminated  in  a  White  Book  against  the  company's 
taxation,  while  admitting  that  its  administration  was  "  admirably 
organized." 

All  this  resulted  in  its  being  compelled,  after  four  years'  nego- 
tiations, to  limit  its  administrative  expenditure;  so  that  it  had  not 
only  to  abandon  its  plans  for  extension  eastward  to  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  but  also  to  slacken  in  its  efforts  to  establish  in 
its  acquired  territory  the  peace  and  order  which  it  had  declared  an 
essential  preliminary  to  the  development  of  commerce.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  company  pleaded  that  nearly  all  taxation  fell  on  its 
own  commercial  operations  as  the  chief  traders  in  the  Niger.  Un- 
der a  parliamentary  regime  votes  are  more  important  than  argu- 
ments, while  the  company  could  not  put  its  objects  before  the  public 
without  divulging  them  to  France  and  Germany.  As  a  last 
resource  the  company  suggested  that  an  imperial  subsidy  of  $250,- 
000  a  year  might  be  granted.  This  was  not  conceded,  and  the 
strange  spectacle  was  presented  of  a  company  willing  and  even 
anxious  to  tax  its  own  commercial  operations  heavily  for  imperial 
purposes,  yet  denied  permission  to  do  so,  because  similar  taxation 
would  have  to  be  borne  by  other  traders,  who  would  be  enabled 
to  enter  the  Niger  in  safety,  thanks  to  the  order  established  there 
by  the  expenditure  of  the  revenue. 

It  seems  to  be  a  prevailing  error  that  the  Berlin  Act  imposed 
free  trade  on  tlie  Niger  region  as  it  did  on  the  basin  of  the  Congo ; 
this  is  quite  erroneous.  The  waters  of  the  British  Niger  were 
freed  at  the  Berlin  Conference  for  transit  of  merchant  sliips  to 
regions  beyond  British  inllncncc,  following  the  ])rinciple  which, 
since  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1S15,  has  been  adopted  for  nearly 
all  tlie  rivers  in  lun'opc  and  .\mcrica  which  How  through  two  or 
more  states;  but  the  company  were    at    liberty    to    impose  what 


158  AFRICA 

1885-1900 

customs  rcc:ulatl«^is  they  dcc-ni  ncccssnry  as  to  lanclinj:^  on  their 
own  tcrriti>rK'>.  There  are  munenms  ports  of  entry,  and  the  com- 
pany were  entitled  to  insist  that  these  and  tlicsc  alone  sliould  he 
M>ed  In-  vessels:  jnst  as  all  maritime  nations  have  ports  where 
alone  vessels  mav  load  or  (lischar_L;e.  P.oth  dermany  and  h'rance 
have  endeavored  to  hreak  thron;^di  these  retaliations,  and  to  avoid 
the  dnes  which  have  heen  imposed,  and  especially  the  almost  pro- 
hihitive  dnties  on  spirits,  but  these  attempts  have  invariably  proved 
iHisuccessfid. 

The  Roval  Xii^er  Company  was  the  first  Enj^^lish  company  in 
modern  times  to  which  a  charter  was  .e^rantcd  for  territories  under 
British  protection.  It  was,  indeed,  preceded  for  some  years  by  the 
I'ritish  Xortli  Borneo  Company,  but  their  territories  were  not 
placed  under  I'ritish  protection  until  the  i^rant  of  charters  to  the 
F.riiish  I'.ast  Africa  and  British  South  Africa  Companies,  some 
time  after  the  granting  of  the  Xiger  charier.  It  has  been  seen  in 
previous  chapters  that  such  instruments  were  common  in  i^ast 
times,  from  the  days  of  Elizabeth  downward.  There  can  be  little 
question  tha-t  such  a  metlKul  is  well  adapted  for  initiating  the 
(Ic\cloj)mcnl  of  a  distant  tropical  country,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
are  to  a  large  extent  barbarous,  the  climate  of  which  is  not  favor- 
able for  permanent  Euroj)ean  settlement,  and  which  is  not  ripe  for 
tlie  elaborate  and  cxi)ensive  machincrv  of  a  Crown  colony.  It 
secures  the  region  for  the  power  which  grants  the  charter  at  a 
mininumi  of  outlay,  anrl  the  rule  of  the  companv  mav  at  any  time, 
should  the  necessity  arise,  be  sujierseded  by  a  more  direct  imj)erial 
administration.  A  charter  is  an  admirable  compromise,  a  useful 
first  step  to  something  more  achanced.  The  protection  which  Great 
I'ritaiii  alTnrds  is  limited  to  securing  the  chartered  regions  from 
external  aggression  on  the  ])art  of  civilized  powers;  and  the  main- 
tenance of  internal  peace  and  security  lies  upon  the  chartered  com- 
jianic<.  While  the  government  that  grants  it  is  thus  freed  from  all 
expendiiure.  it  can  imj)ose  whatever  conditions  it  chooses  in  order 
I"  secure  -at!■^factl'ry  administration,  and  can  at  any  time  withdraw 
tr.e  cliartcr  if  tlioe  conditions  are  not  adhered  to.  Of  the  three 
great  Airicnn  companies  which  have  received  royal  charters,  the 
R"y;il  Niger  C''m])any  was  the  one  which  came  least  before  the 
public.  Inn  up  to  its  supercession  it  was  the  most  steadily 
l)rogrc-»ivc.  Without  taking  the  public  into  its  confidence,  the 
C''n:j)any  (inici'.;.    aihanced    ivnu]   one  post  to  another,  and   made 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     159 

1884-1901 

one  treaty  after  another,  until  its  sphere  embraced  an  area  of  about 
400,000  square  miles.  It  took  precautions,  among  other  things,  to 
forestall  attempts  on  the  part  of  other  powers  to  come  between 
itself  and  that  portion  of  the  Central  Sudan  which  it  believed  with 
some  justice  ought  to  be  within  its  sphere. 

At  first  sight  it  seems  anomalous  and  to  be  regretted  that  the 
region  known  as  the  Oil  Rivers,  extending  from  the  boundary  of 
the  colony  of  Lagos  to  the  Forcados  River,  and  from  the  Brass 
River  to  the  Rio  del  Rey,  which  may  be  in  part  regarded  as  the 
delta  of  the  Niger,  should  have  been  c^uite  detached  from  the  juris- 
diction to  which  the  river  itself  is  subjected;  but  there  w^ere  reasons 
for  it.  As  has  been  seen,  B-ritish  traders  had  been  settled  here 
for  many  years,  long  before  the  great  river  was  itself  known  in  its 
lower  course.  As  we  have  seen,  they  narrowly  escaped  annexation 
by  Germany;  for  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  had  Hewett  not 
forestalled  Nachtigal,  the  latter  would  have  had  no  hesitation  in 
dealing  with  them  as  he  did  with  the  Cameroons;  had  he  done  so 
he  would  have  secured  the  greater  part  of  the  seaboard  between 
the  colony  and  Lagos.  After  the  Oil  Rivers  were  declared  a  British 
protectorate  in  1884,  they  were  subject  to  a  consular  jurisdiction 
until  1 89 1,  when  an  imperial  administrator  and  consul-general 
was  appointed,  with  a  staff  of  vice-consuls,  one  to  be  stationed  on 
each  river.  Taxes  were  of  necessity  imposed ;  the  rough  system 
of  justice  administered  by  Courts  of  Equity,  composed  of  the  mer- 
chants themselves  under  consular  supervision,  was  superseded  by 
more  regular  methods,  and  the  Oil  Rivers  were  virtually  converted 
into  a  Crown  colony. 

The  Oil  Rivers  march,  on  tlicir  nortii  side,  with  the  colony  of 
Lagos,  of  all  the  British  colonies  in  West  Africa,  the  most  pros- 
perous and  promising,  mainly  because  it  has  a  reasonable  Hinter- 
land behind  it.  The  rich  and  thickly  ix)pulated  Yoruba  country 
has  been  annexed  as  a  protectorate,  a  country  capable  of  great 
agricultural  development,  with  large  cities  populated  by  an  eager 
trading  population.  With  regard  to  the  other  British  West  African 
colonies,  the  enterprise  of  the  French,  combined  with  the  British 
policy  of  abstention  already  referred  to,  has  practically  restricted 
the  Gold  Coast  ami  Sierra  Leone  to  strips  of  the  seaboard,  wiiile 
the  Gambia  colon v  is  confined  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  Bcjlli 
banks  of  the  Gambia,  however,  liavc  Ijcen  l>ritisli  since  1901,  and 
in  tliat  same  year  .Aslianli  was  (Iclhiitcly  annexed.     A  protectorate 


160  AFHKA 

1896-1901 

puK-lniiiU'd  in  \S-(/)  has  also  added  cniisidcrably  in  llic  extent  of 
Sierr.i  Leone.  More  recently  the  ct)lony  of  Nis;eria  has  been 
formed,  {ov  the  most  part  (ahont  nine-tenths)  out  of  the  domains 
of  the  koval  N'ii^er  C'ompany.  which  snrrendered  its  rit^hts  Jannary 
I,  li)i\^.  There  strennous  and  irresistible  pressure  has  been 
brought  to  bear  ai^^ainst  the  two  horrors  of  the  district,  slavery 
and  cannibalism.  All  children  born  after  April  i,  njoi,  are  free. 
Similar  operations  fa\-orin<;'  civilization  and  the  j^rowth  of  trade 
have  been  i)ushed  forward  steadily  aloni;'  the  Gold  Coast,  Lai^os, 
ilie  (lamhia.  anil  Sierra  Leone.  Llarbor  works  have  been  con- 
structed alon<j^  this  coast. 

r.eftire  briefly  referrini^  to  the  international  treaties  by  which 
the  jjowers  concerned  have  attempted  to  delimit  the  spheres  within 
which  their  influence  is  acknowledt^ed,  let  us  realize  the  fact  that 
tlie  i,^oal  of  all  the  three  great  nations  concerned  lies  in  the  region 
around  Lake  Chad.  'J'imbuklu,  it  has  already  been  jjointed  out, 
has  always  dazzled  the  dreamers  of  b'rance  as  the  central  ])oint  of 
the  future  great  "  African  Lmpire,"  and  the  key  to  the  Central 
Sudan,  which  with  some  justice  has  been  regarded  as  one  of  the 
ricliest  regions  of  Central  Africa.  Although  Timbuktu  has  been 
reduced  to  a  comparatively  commonplace  town,  still  the  Central 
Sudan — S(jkoto,  Bornu,  Bagirnn',  Kanem,  Wadai,  Darfur,  to  name 
the  principal  states — is  a  region  which  any  commercial  people 
might  well  desire  to  monopolize.  While  there"  is  a  large  substratum 
of  pagan  liojjulation,  negroes  and  mixed  breeds,  the  ruling  jjcople 
are  ^bJhammedan,  comparatively  civilized,  using  enormous  (juanti- 
ties  of  textile  and  other  commodities  which  Kuro])e  can  sujjply. 
The  ruling  race,  the  bY'lIatah  (;r  b\ilah,  are  of  a  su])erior  tyjje, 
totally  distinct  from  the  true  negro,  and  coming  from  the  east. 
Here  we  have  the  old  semi-barbarous  Mohammedan  pageantry  in 
its  ancient  glory,  combined  with  intense  hatred  of  the  infidel 
I'AU-t^jjcan.  The  bVench  have  had  many  difficulties  with  such  Ab)- 
hammedan  ]>otentates  as  Samory  and  Ahmadu.  King  M'tesa  of 
Lganda  was  not  to  be  dealt  with  so  easily  as  a  wretched  Congo 
chief,  or  even  as  Lobengula ;  but  these  Central  Sudan  potentates 
niay  gi\e  more  timible  to  the  j)ower  or  jjowers  that  undertake  to 
reduce  them  to  Mibjection  tlian  all  the  rest  of  Africa  combined, 
not  even  e\cei>ting  Morocco.  But  notwithstanding  this,  or  in 
ignorance  of  it,  (Ireat  P.ritain,  b^-ance.  and  (lermanv  tried  to  out- 
race  each   (jther   in   reaching  the  (/had   regi'iis.      Lrance  has  sent 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     161 

1890-1900 

expedition  after  expedition  from  the  Senegal  Coast  and  the  Guinea 
Coast,  with  Lake  Chad — little  better  than  a  huge  marsh — as  their 
goal.  Most  of  these  expeditions  are  undertaken  at  government 
expense.  Perhaps  the  most  determined  attempt  which  has  been 
made  was  the  expedition  which  in  1890  started  from  the  Mobangi 
tributary  of  the  Congo  under  M.  Paul  Crampel.  It  ascended  the 
Mobangi  and  struck  nortliward  to  the  Bagirmi  country,  the  south- 
ern limit  of  which  is  only  about  three  hundred  miles  from  the 
Mobangi.  Disaster  overtook  the  expedition  on  the  threshold  of 
Bagirmi,  and  M.  Crampel  and  all  but  one  of  his  white  companions 
were  massacred.  Another  expedition  under  a  young-  naval  officer. 
Lieutenant  ]\Iizon,  actually  entered  the  river  itself  in  1890  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  behind  the  Niger  Company's  territories  in  order 
to  secure  the  Hinterland  for  France.  Notwithstanding  the  avowed 
object  of  the  expedition,  the  company  did  all  they  could  possibly 
be  expected  to  do  to  help  Mizon,  even  going  so  far  as  to  lend  him 
money  and  to  tow  boats  up  the  Niger  and  Benue.  Foiled  in  his 
attempt  to  cut  the  company  ofif  from  the  Lake  Chad  region,  Mizon 
entered  into  relations  with  the  King  of  Adamawa,  from  whose 
country  he  marched  south  behind  the  German  Cameroon s  to  the 
French  Congo.  In  the  summer  of  1892  he  again  set  out  for  the 
Niger  with  the  avowed  object  of  furthering  French  commercial 
interests  in  Adamawa,  and  of  extending  French  influence  as  far 
in  the  direction  of  Lake  Chad  as  possible.  He  asserted  that  he  suc- 
ceeded in  concluding  a  treaty  with  a  chief  on  the  Upper  Benue,  but 
a  German  officer  in  the  same  region  maintained  that  he  also  had 
concluded  a  treaty  with  the  same  chief  some  days  before.  M. 
Dubowski  and  M.  Maistre,  starting  from  the  Mobangi  River,  and 
following  in  tlie  footsteps  of  Crampel,  in  1892- 1893  made  their  way 
north  through  Adamawa,  reaching  the  River  Shari,  where,  accord- 
ing to  their  reports,  they  made  treaties  with  several  chiefs.  All 
this  activity  on  the  part  of  France  prepared  the  way  for  fresh 
arrangements  for  the  partition  of  the  region  to  the  south  of  Lake 
Chad.  The  French  finally  reached  the  lake,  and  thus  effected  a 
union  between  their  Sudanese  possessions  and  those  of  the  Congo, 
during  the  years  1899  and  1900. 

Both  I'^rench  and  German  c.\])C(liti(>ns  had  not  only  the  sym- 
pathy, but  the  acti\-e  sii])])ort  of  their  governments,  who  sn])plie<l 
considerable  sums  aninially  from  the  treasuries  for  the  development 
of  their  y\frican  possessions;  while  the  Niger  Company,  as  a  purely 


162  AFRICA 

1898-1901 

private  undertaking-,  did  not  cost  the  British  Government  a  penny. 
Yet  tliis  remarkable  fact  remains,  that  the  private  enterprise 
Yielded  a  fair  prc>lit  to  tliose  eni^^aged  in  it,  while  both  the  French 
and  (icrmaii  sjihcres  have  involved  an  expenditure  far  in  excess  of 
any  revenue  which  has  lx?en  derived  from  them.  Here,  as  in  other 
porti<Mis  of  the  British  Kmpire.  the  tlag  has  followed  the  trade;  the 
reverse  policv  has  been  that  of  France  and  (»f  Germany  in  Africa. 
Indeed  there  is  a  strong  colonial  party  in  France  who  are  tired 
of  all  these  expcilitions.  military  and  exploratory,  who  maintain 
that  I-'ronch  annexation  has  gone  far  enough,  and  that  the  time  has 
come  to  develop  what  has  already  been  acquired,  which,  so  far, 
has  only  been  a  source  of  outlay  without  return. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  various  stages  of  advance  in  the 
direction  of  the  Niger  and  Lake  Chad  have  been  marked  by  inter- 
national arrangements,  not  always  so  clear  and  well  defined  as  to 
prevent  ambiguity  and  to  obviate  disputes  between  those  wdio  were 
parties  to  them.  Between  France  and  Fngland  there  have  been 
several  arrangements  regulating  the  position  of  their  colonies  on 
the  coast,  and  their  respective  spheres  in  the  interior.  On  the 
Gambia,  by  the  agreement  of  August  lo,  1889,  the  British  sphere 
is  virtually  confined  to  about  six  miles  on  each  side  of  the  river  as 
far  as  Yarbutendi.  The  exports  from  the  Gambia  are  on  an  aver- 
age (1898-1901)  about  $1,200,000,  and  the  trade  is  almost  entirely 
in  French  hands.  Until  we  reach  Sierra  Leone.  French  territory 
is  uninterrupted  except  for  a  block  of  4500  square  miles  to  the 
sriuth  of  the  Gambia,  w-hich  is  all  that  remains  of  Portuguese 
Guinea.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  France  is  now  in  actual  occupation 
of  the  whole  region  from  which  Sierra  Leone  could  derive  its 
trade. 

Much  the  same  might  be  said  of  Liberia,  though  so  far  as  the 
wants  of  its  population  go, — even  with  all  the  encroachments  of 
France, — the  country  itself  possesses  resources  enough  if  they  were 
prripcrly  developed.  But  what  wn'th  tlie  presence  of  a  British  colony 
on  tlie  north,  and  the  I'rcnch  in  the  Hinterland  and  on  the  soutli 
cr)ast,  Liberia  has  been  gradually  reduced  both  in  length  and 
breadtli.  So  far  as  the  prosperity  of  the  country  and  the  welfare 
of  tlie  popnlc'itidn  are  concerned,  annexation  by  some  strong 
I>owcr  might  not  be  a  calamity;  the  experiment  of  an  independent 
rivili/cd  Africnn  ^tatc  can  hardlv  be  said  to  have  been  a  success. 
It  i>  a  fair  example  of  Ikav  far  the  native  c)f  Central  Africa,  even 


STRUGGLE     FOR     THE     NIGER  163 

1888-1894 

when  comparatively  civilized,  is.  if  left  to  himself,  capable  of 
developing  the  resources  of  his  continent. 

By  the  Anglo-French  agreement  already  referred  to,  the 
British  Gold  Coast  colony  is  permitted  to  stretch  inland  to  9° 
north  latitude ;  and  if  the  treaties  which  the  French  are  reported  to 
have  made  with  the  natives  in  the  interior  are  admitted  to  be 
valid,  the  Gold  Coast  will  be  in  much  the  same  position  as  Sierra 
Leone,  while  on  the  other  side,  as  was  shown  in  a  previous  chapter, 
the  Germans  have  been  attempting  to  creep  round  from  Togoland 
in  spite  of  the  neutral  zone  that  was  established  by  the  Anglo- 
German  agreement  of  1888.  Li  their  attempts  to  press  into  the 
interior  the  Germans  are  more  likely  to  come  into  contact  with  the 
French  than  with  the  British.  The  small  wedge  of  French  terri- 
tory between  Togoland  and  Lagos  has  the  fierce  Dahomans  behind 
it;  with  these  France  had  a  severe  struggle  in  1892-1894,  resulting 
in  the  practical  subjugation  of  one  of  the  most  troublesome  native 
states  in  Africa,  and  the  establishment  of  French  supremacy.  But 
Dahomey  is  completely  insulated  by  the  treaties  of  the  Royal  Niger 
Company.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  until  we  approach  the  former 
sphere  of  the  Royal  Niger  Company,  France  practically  claims  to 
be  dominant  in  the  interior.  From  the  point  of  view  of  haute 
politique  British  statesmen  may  or  may  not  be  justified  in  merely 
"  watching  "  (as  their  expression  is)  these  French  advances.  But, 
undoubtedly,  British  trade  in  the  West  African  colonies  has  been 
severely  hampered  bv  these  wholesale  annexations.  England  has 
not  sought  to  enter  into  competition  with  France  in  the  advance 
of  the  latter  into  interior  regions,  at  first,  because  British  states- 
men shirked  incurring  further  responsibility,  and  latterly,  to  all 
appearance,  for  no  other  reason  than  to  please  France,  l^ngland  has 
held  her  hands.  It  may  be  that  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  safeguard 
the  interests  of  the  British  Empire  lielicve  that  they  have  had  com- 
pensation for  this  abnegation  elsewhere.  Tt  is  usual  to  reproach 
the  West  African  colonists  with  never  having  done  much  to  develop 
the  trade  of  the  interior;  they  have  simply  squatted  on  the  coast 
and  taken  what  was  brought  them ;  but  the  difficulty  has  been  that 
any  more  enterprising  ]K)licy  has  been  discouraged  by  the  home 
government. 

So  far  as  British  interests  in  this  region  of  Central  Africa  are 
concerned,  the  Anglo-b^-ench  agreement  of  y\ugust  5,  1890,  is  of 
the  utmost  importance.     Let  us  briefly  consider  its  purport.     The 


164  AFRICA 

1888-1894 

clause  which  relates  to  the  Xi.cfcr  rcg-ion  is  as  follows:  "The 
CKnemmcTit  of  Tier  Britannic  Majesty  recognizes  the  sphere  of 
influence  of  France  to  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean  possessions, 
up  to  a  line  from  Say  on  the  Niger  to  Barnia  on  Lake  Chad,  drawn 
in  such  a  luanncr  as  to  comprise  in  the  sphere  of  action  of  the 
Niger  C'(uupany  all  that  fairly  belongs  to  the  kingdom  of  Sokoto; 
tlie  line  to  he  dcterminc(l  by  the  commission  t(^  be  appointed." 
Commissioners  from  the  two  powers  were  to  meet  in  Paris  to 
determine  the  boundaries  of  the  respective  si)heres,  including  the 
region  to  the  west  and  the  south  of  the  T^Iiddle  Niger,  the  region 
in  which  the  agents  of  France  have  been  so  busy  making  treaties 
without  waiting  fi^r  the  decision  of  a  comiuission  which  has  never 
met.  The  line  between  Say  and  Barrua  is  traced  very  differently 
by  I'rench  and  Fnglish  cartographers.  The  former  make  it  almost 
straight,  with  a  tendency  to  bend  southward,  the  latter,  recognizing 
that  the  country  of  Air  or  Asben  is  subject  to  Sokoto,  make  it  take 
a  sharp  bend  northward,  to  about  i8°  north  latitude  before  it 
swecjis  down  to  Say.  'J'lie  French  cartographers  make  the  western 
boundary  line  drop  directly  southward  from  Say  to  the  Guinea 
Coast,  ignoring  Gurma,  wliich  is  a  province  of  the  Sokoto-Gandu 
empire,  and  Borgu,  with  which  kingdom  the  Niger  Company  has 
treaties. 

Again,  it  is  maintained  on  the  British  side  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  arrangement.  France  should  abstain  from 
making  any  annexati(ons  to  the  immediate  south  of  Lake  Chad,  or 
to  the  east  of  the  lake  south  of  tlie  continuation  of  tlie  Say-P)arrua 
line.  But  as  we  have  seen,  this  is  not  the  I'rcnch  interpretation, 
and  precipitate  .and,  to  a  certain  extent,  successful,  efforts  have  been 
made  to  get  bel:ind  the  former  Niger  Company's  s])liere,  and  if 
possible  create  a  I'rench  sphere  on  the  south  and  east  of  Lake  Chad. 
Bornu.  which  lies  between  Sokoto  and  Lake  Chad,  is,  though  some- 
what dcca}-ed.  still  a  powerful  Mohammcd.an  state,  with  five  million 
people.  t!ic  trade  of  which  is  worth  cultivating:  it  is  within  the 
British  '^plicrc.  l>agirmi,  which  lies  southc:ist  from  Lake  Chad, 
is  n^t  >o  advanced  in  civilization  as  the  great  kingdom  of  Wadai, 
to  which  it  is  subject.  Wadai,  the  most  powerful  Mohammedan 
state  in  the  ("e:itral  Sud.an.  (occupies  the  space  l)etween  Lake  Chad 
and  l)arfr.r,  ijo.rxjo  square  miles  in  .area,  with  a  j)opulation  of 
two  million'^.  The  negro  Mabas.  who  are  the  ruling  jjcople,  are 
fanatical   Mohaniniedans,  and   Wadai   will  prove  one  of  the  must 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     165 

1890-1894 

difficult  of  all  the  African  states  to  deal  with.  Kanem,  which  lies 
round  the  north  and  east  shores  of  the  lake,  is  also  tributary  to 
Wadai.  To  the  east  of  Wadai  all  except  the  western  section  of 
Darfur  is,  according  to  the  Anglo-German  agreement  of  July, 
1890,  within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  these  Central  Sudan  states  the  suzerainty  of  which  has 
been  coveted  by  France  and  Germany ;  the  lake  around  which  they 
are  grouped  is  the  goal  to  which  so  many  French  expeditions  have 
been  concentrating  along  half  a  dozen  lines.  No  doubt  the  Royal 
Niger  Company  had  a  position  of  advantage  over  all  the  others, 
being,  so  to  speak,  within  measurable  distance  of  the  lake;  and  it 
cannot  be  accused  of  any  lack  of  enterprise.  Those  who  directed 
its  affairs  knew  their  own  interests,  and  might  have  been  trusted 
to  secure  a  footing  in  the  Lake  Chad  states  if  they  had  been  per- 
mitted to  tax  themselves  and  others  to  secure  the  necessary  means. 
If  the  company  had  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  Mohammedan 
fanaticism  of  the  Chad  states  so  far  as  to  induce  them  by  peaceful 
means  to  enter  into  friendly  relations,  it  is  to  be  hoped  it  would 
have  obtained  prompt  support  from  the  imperial  government, 
though  in  view  of  recent  events  in  East  Africa  this  is  doubtful.  In 
this  way  the  British  sphere  might  have  extended  across  the  heart 
of  the  Sudan  from  the  Nile  to  the  Niger,  and  included  one  of  the 
most  desirable  sections  of  the  continent.  The  Lake  Chad  region  is 
one  of  the  great  centers  of  the  traffic  in  slaves,  thousands  of  whom, 
captured  in  the  pagan  countries  to  the  south,  are  sent  across  the 
Sahara  every  year;  and  it  will  probably  be  found  more  difficult  to 
suppress  this  trade  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  Africa. 

Here,  as  elsewhere  in  Central  Africa,  the  course  of  events  com- 
pelled a  compromise.  While  blench  agents  were  forcing  their  way 
from  the  west  and  the  south  behind  the  British  sphere,  with  Lake 
Chad  as  their  goal,  well-equipped  expeditions  from  the  Cameroons 
made  their  way  to  the  Upper  Benue  with  a  similar  object.  This 
activity  on  the  part  of  France  and  Germany  rendered  inaction  on 
tlie  part  of  England  impossiljle.  The  Niger  Company,  however 
willing,  had  not  the  means  to  proceed  eastward  from  Sokoto  and 
take  possession  of  the  states  on  the  south  and  east  of  Lake  Chad ; 
while  on  the  other  side  the  advance  from  British  East  Africa  had 
stopped  at  Uganda,  the  Congo  h'rcc  State  forces  had  planted  them- 
selves on  the  U])pcr  Nile,  and  Darfur  seemed  as  far  out  of  the 
range  of  practical  enterprise  as  Khartum.     It  was  clear,  then,  that 


ififi  AFRICA 

1890-1894 

nn  iin.lorstandin.ir  with  rcpfard  to  the  extensive  area  lying  between 
the  C'.iinen-.Mis  .-iiid  the  Moh.ni.qi  on  ihc  one  side  and  the  Central 
Sudan  on  the  other,  was  incvital)lc.  luit^Iand's  bnsiness  was  to 
satV^iard  the  sphere  of  the  Koyal  Niger  Company  on  the  one  side, 
and  tlie  oxttMisicui  o\  liritish  luast  Africa  to  the  region  watered  by 
the  Western  Nile  tribntaries  on  the  other.  This  latter  region  was 
seenred  to  (ireat  Britain  so  far  as  Germany  was  concerned  by  the 
Anglo-Cernian  agreement  of  July,  1890.  Naturally,  therefore,  it 
seemeil  as  if  she  was  a  mnch  safer  neighbor  than  France  to  have 
between  tlie  West  ami  Iiast  African  British  spheres.  It  was  con- 
sidered, then,  an  excellent  stroke  of  policy  to  hand  over  the  wdiole 
of  this  intervening  region  to  Germany  and  leave  her  to  deal  with 
the  iM-ench  agents  who  were  making  their  way  through  the  British 
sp!;cre  on  the  west  and  liehind  the  German  sphere  on  the  sonth. 
This  ])olicy  was  given  effect  in  the  agreement  betw^een  Great 
Britain  and  (iermany,  signed  at  Berlin  November  15,  1893. 

This.  then,  seemed  detinitely  to  settle  the  difficulty  which  the 
Royal  Niger  Com])any  had  continually  to  face  through  the  enter- 
j)rise  of  l-"rench  agents,  so  far  at  least  as  the  eastern  limits  of  its 
territories  were  concerned.  The  enormous  concession  to  Germany 
c  'iifirmed  the  friendship  which  England  had  sought  to  maintain 
from  tlie  beginning  of  the  African  activities  of  the  former. 
Naturally  l-'rance  was  indignant  at  the  march  which  had  been  stolen 
upon  licr.  and  at  the  apparently  successful  attempt  which  had  been 
made  by  Great  Britain  to  checkmate  her  designs  upon  the  Central 
Sudan  states.  PiUt  she  was  not  prepared  quietly  to  accept  the  new 
arrangement.  In  .Africa,  it  will  have  been  seen,  France  and  Ger- 
many have  always  been  most  accommodating  to  each  other,  and  in 
the  ijre-c-nt  instance  Germany  was  as  generous  as  she  had  been  on 
jirevious  oreasi(jns.  Germany  and  France,  like  Germany  and 
lMiK!''ii'i.  ha<l  tlieir  unsettled  frontier  questions.  No  satisfactory 
arrai;^(.incnt  had  ever  been  come  to  with  respect  to  the  eastern 
l>oun'!ary  oi  the  Cameroons.  The  advantage  gained  by  Germany 
in  t!:e  arr.iiigcment  with  Great  Britain  placed  the  former  in  a  posi- 
tion tM  iiidrjc  !•' ranee  to  come  to  tenus;  she  had  no  hesitation  in 
brihi:i-  iia::ce  with  a  large  blcjck  r)f  the  territory  secured  to  her 
fjy  t!ic  aL,T{' incut  of  Xo\ember.  1893.  preferring  her  own  interests 
'"  ^''''^e  01  JMiLilaiid,  even  tliougli  in  so  doing  she  did  the  latter  a 
■^•■iiiev.liai  r.nirie'idly  turn.  \',y  ;i  cr.nvention  signed  at  Berlin  on 
i  ehruary  .),    iS'j.;.  Uic  bKjck  of  territtjry  accpiired  by  (iermany  in 


STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  NIGER     167 

1879-1894 

accordance  with  the  arrangement  above  referred  to  was  divided 
into  two  parts ;  the  western  section  was  retained  by  Germany,  while 
the  eastern  section  was  made  over  to  France.  Thus  France  be- 
comes the  neighbor  of  England  on  the  extreme  western  borders  of 
the  latter's  East  African  sphere,  all  along  the  line,  from  Darfur  on 
the  north  to  Bahr-el-Ghazal  on  the  south.  No  other  power  is  likely 
to  seek  a  footing  in  the  enormous  area  which  Germany  has  left  to 
France.  According  to  the  Convention  of  February,  1894,  Ger- 
many retains  a  considerable  stretch  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Chad. 

To  all  appearance  by  the  arrangement  referred  to,  France  has 
realized  her  dream  of  uninterrupted  territory  from  the  Congo  to 
the  Mediterranean.  The  most  powerful  and  most  important  of  all 
the  Central  Sudan  states,  Wadai,  was  not  expressly  mentioned  in 
these  agreements;  nor  can  it  be  fairly  held  to  lie  east  of  the  line 
of  the  Shari.  France  could  not  have  complained  if  another  power 
had  forestalled  her  in  this  desirable  state ;  but,  in  consequence  of 
later  French  movements,  Wadai  is  generally  recognized  as  within 
the  French  sphere  of  operations.  If  we  may  judge  from  what 
France  has  done  in  West  Africa  during  her  many  years  of  occu- 
pancy, it  will  be  a  long  time  before  she  does  anything  to  develop 
the  resources  of  the  vast  area  in  Central  Africa  on  which  she  has 
set  her  seal.  So  far  as  the  Central  Sudan  is  concerned,  the  outlet 
of  its  trade  has  till  recently  been  mainly  across  the  desert  to  the 
Mediterranean.  One  of  the  main  services  of  the  French  in  their 
African  operations  has  been  the  establishment  of  peace  and  order 
in  the  Senegal  and  Niger  region,  the  scene  of  unending  petty  war- 
fares before  tlie  French  conquest. 

This  seems  the  appropriate  place  to  refer  to  certain  facts  which 
complicate  the  problem  of  the  introduction  of  European  influence 
into  these  Central  Sudan  states.  On  the  defeat  of  the  forces  of 
Suleiman  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  by  Gordon's  lieutenant,  Gessi 
Pasha,  in  1879,  Rabah,  one  of  Suleiman's  ofikers,  fled  to  the  Niam- 
Niam  country,  accompanied  by  a  considerable  force  of  men  trained 
to  fighting  in  the  Sudan.  With  these  Rabah  seems  to  have  made 
his  way  northwestward  to  Bagirmi,  which,  according  to  very 
trustworthy  reports,  he  succeeded  in  conquering.  Rabah.  indeed, 
seemed  at  that  time  to  h.ave  bcome  the  dominant  power  in  the 
Central  vSudan,  greatly  increasing  his  forces  by  additions  from 
among  the   natives   whose   country  he   concpiercd.      So   powerful, 


168  AFHICA 

^  1899-1901 

intlcetl.  »li«l  ho  limMiio  that,  acconliii.q:  to  report,  he  defeated  the 
Suhaii  <>t  Watlai  hiiuselt'.  and  even  conquered  Boriui.  He  was  de- 
feated and  slain  hv  a  h'rcncli  force  in  1900;  this  ended  all  opposition 
to  the  l-'rcnch  power  in  this  res::i(Mi. 

As  a  setpicl  to  the  agreement  of  i8go,  France  liad  no  hcsita- 
tii>n  in  inchidini:  on  her  maps  of  Africa  the  bulk  of  the  Sahara 
desert  as  within  her  sphere.  J.ater  aj^^reenients  have  confirmed  this 
procedure;  hv  i8<)<)  Ha<;irmi.  W'adai,  Kanem,  Borku,  and  Tibesti 
were  ackii<u\  ledj;edly  French.  From  the  southwest  corner  of 
Ali;eria  her  cartocrrapliers  drew  a  straig^ht  line  southwest  to  Cape 
Blanco,  therehv  ii^norinj^-  the  Spanish  claims  over  Adrar.  When 
this  line  is  dctlected  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  these  claims  settled 
by  a  I-'ranco-Spanish  as^recment  of  190 1,  we  have  between  that 
line  and  the  eastern  bounilary — which  on  French  maps  extends 
from  Tunis  in  a  /^it^zap^  direction  southward  so  as  to  inckule  the 
whole  of  Kancm — a  total  area  of  something  hke  a  million  square 
miles.  It  should  also  he  noted  that  in  drawing  the  western  line 
the  ci'mj)aratively  fine  region  of  Tuat  was  included,  a  district  which 
was  claimed  by  Morocco.  France  regards  her  conquest  of  her 
West  African  sphere  as  now  complete;  and  that  of  Central  Africa 
as  far  achanccfl. 

What  is  l'"rance  to  do  with  this  enormous  area  largely  of 
desert?  I'or  though  recent  explorations  have  corrected  prevailing 
notions  of  the  nature  of  the  ^Sahara,  there  is  no  doubt  that,  with 
tiie  exception  of  an  oasis  here  and  there,  the  million  square  miles 
claimed  by  hVance  is  mostly  sand,  stone,  and  scrub.  It  is  true  that 
underneath  the  Sahara,  as  under  all  other  deserts,  there  is  a  vast 
store  of  water.  On  tlie  soutli  of  Algeria  this  water  has  been  tapped, 
oa>c<  ha\e  been  created,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  datc-jjalms 
planted.  Fliis.  however.  sim]:i]y  sliows  that  W'hen  the  earth  is  so 
lull  (.f  people  that  all  the  other  lands  have  been  utilized  for  the 
pnri!  .sc>  of  humanity,  we  shall  still  have  the  Sahara  to  fall  back 
upon  as  a  la-^t  resource.  Meanwhile  the  Sahara  is  regarded  by 
l-rancc  nia:;dy  as  a  connecting  link  between  her  provinces  on  tlie 
Mc'litorr.inean  and  tlic  intcrirrr  region  claimed  bv  her  in  the  l)asins 
01  tlie  Si:;i-a!.  tlie  Xigrr,  and  Lake  Chad.  Reference  has  already 
been  n^i'ir  t"  the  unfortunate  expedition  under  Colonel  IHatters, 
'•'•■'■^''  '■■^"  ^:^\v  "f  surveying  for  a  railway  route.  That  disaster 
-Mlpia-i-d  al!  th..u-Iits  of  a  railway  for  some  years.  But  after 
the  Anj^d.  1  rciK-h  agreement  tlie  scheme  of  a  Trans-Saharan  Rail- 


STRUGGLE    FOR    THE     NIGER  169 

1899-1901' 

way  was  taken  up  again  with  renewed  vigor.  There  were  various 
prehminary  surveys  to  the  south  of  Algeria,  and  three  main 
schemes  were  advanced,  starting  from  the  three  provinces  of 
Algeria;  one  having  St.  Louis  as  its  southern  terminus,  another 
Timbuktu,  and  a  third  Lake  Chad.  The  total  length  in  any  case 
was  to  be  about  2000  miles,  and  the  cost  fifty  to  one  hundred 
million  dollars,  including  the  defenses  at  each  station  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Tuaregs.  The  difficulties  of  a  railway  across  a  water- 
less desert  are  obvious,  but,  as  the  Central  Asian  Railway  proves, 
not  at  all  insuperable.  At  present  occasional  caravans  of  camels 
bear  commerce  of  the  whole  of  the  Central  Sudan,  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  see  how  a  railway  could  pay  until  after  many  years.  Each 
caravan  carries  goods  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000  (not  including 
slaves),  and  probably  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars  would  repre- 
sent the  total  annual  traffic  between  the  Central  Sudan  and  the 
Mediterranean  countries  west  of  Egypt.  Ostrich  feathers  and 
gum  are  the  main  exports;  gold  has  long  ago  disappeared.  As  to 
slaves  the  authentic  figures,  and  they  are  very  old,  were  for  Tripoli 
alone,  about  400,000.  A  railway  might  in  time  succeed  in  increas- 
ing the  demand  for  European  goods,  encouraging  the  development 
of  the  resources  of  the  Sudan,  and  suppressing  slavery.  At  any 
rate,  part  of  the  dream  of  France  has  been  realized ;  now  she  can 
march  over  French  territory  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Congo. 

But  French  dreams  are  not  confined  to  the  construction  of 
railways  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  commerce  of  the  Sudan 
down  to  the  French  ports  on  the  Mediterranean.  Africa  is  the 
great  central  continent  of  the  globe,  and  by  an  extension  of  the 
projected  Sudan  lines  to  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  say  to 
Mozambique  on  the  east  and  to  St.  Louis  on  the  west,  what  more 
easy  than  to  draw  the  bulk  of  the  world's  traffic  into  the  lap  of 
France,  and  so  forever  destroy  the  commercial  supremacy  of  Eng- 
land? On  the  one  side  the  ocean  lines  from  India,  Australia,  and 
the  east  would  converge  toward  Mozambique,  while  all  the  traffic 
of  South  America  would  inevitably  find  an  entrepot  at  St.  Louis, 
This  is  a  fair  sample  of  tlic  brilliant  visions  with  which  the  eyes  of 
the  French  public  are  dazzled  ;  though  it  must  be  said  that  French- 
men familiar  with  the  real  conditions  sim])ly  laugh  at  them. 

Another  scheme,  ccjually  cln'merical,  so  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  goes,   is  that  of  establishing  colonies  of  thousands  of 


no  AFRICA 

1894-1910 

I'liMK-h  peasants  and  small  farmers  in  the  great  bend  of  the  Niger. 
iM  Mossi.  and  other  *"  kinj^dnms."  as  also  in  other  portions  of  the 
Sudan  within  the  .sjihere  oi  l''rance.  When  one  remenihers  the 
l-"ii:u-h.  aversion  to  emigrati(^n.  the  stationary  conditions  of  the 
I'leiK-h  population,  and  the  nature  of  the  chmate  which  prevails 
o\er  the  wliole  of  the  Niger  region,  it  is  ditlicult  to  believe  that 
anv  man  of  sanity  and  ordinary  knowledge  could  broach  such  a 
scheme. 

I'ranee's  occupation  of  the  ininiense  territory  claimed  by  her 
is  So  far  .almost  iiurely  military,  involving  an  annual  expenditure  on 
tlie  part  oi  the  mother  country  of  about  two  million  and  a  half  of 
tloilars.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  said  that  French  influence 
is  felt  benet'iciallv  at  interior  posts.  At  several  places  on  the  Upper 
Senci^al  and  its  feeders,  forts  have  been  built,  European  houses  have 
been  erected,  the  natives  have  gathered  round  in  increasing  numbers, 
and  "  villages  of  liberty  "  for  freed  slaves  and  captives  have  been 
e-«tali!i>;ietl.  As  these  spreail.  French  influence  will  become  more 
.and  more  dominant,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  peace  will  be  established 
ani.'Mg  the  nati\e  chiefs,  and  the  rich  resources  of  the  interior  region 
lie  lievelopeil  to  the  profit  of  all.  M.  Leroy-Beaulieu  calculates  that 
by  !()50  probably  I'rench  West  and  Central  Africa  and  Madagascar 
Will  he  able  to  pay  .all  their  militarv  exjienses. 

Such,  then,  is  the  jjrescnt  i)()sition  of  the  struggle  between  the 
three  ;:rcat  ])i»\veis  for  supremacy  in  the  region  watered  by  the 
.Niger  and  ilie  countries  gr^niped  around  Lake  Chad.  England 
]),  -.(j..^.-,  the  whole  of  the  navigable  ])ortion  of  the  lower  river  and 
niMvt  yii  ii>  orcat  tributary,  the  lienue.  Some  of  the  richest  coun- 
:r;e>.  CM\crin^-  ahnut  h:df  a  million  s(]uare  miles,  fell  within  the 
M.^cr  (i.ni])any's  >p!'.ere ;  while  Captain  Lugard,  who  has  done  so 
mr.di  i..r  Ihi:;-;)  interests  in  l-'.ast  Africa,  was  sent  out  by  the  Niger 
(  "lupaiiy  in  t]ie  >ummer  of  iSY;4  to  look  after  its  interests  in  the 
•i;i:e  reg';-n  >till  left  untouched  by  French  treaties.  He  succeeded. 
•  .::'.  'iig  other  tiii!iL;s.  in  making  fresh  treaties  confirming  those 
'■:■>■. I  ::.:'l  ahe.id)-  been  concluded  bv  the  Niger  Com])any  with 
"  r^riL  'nrn;any,  a^  h;is  been  seen,  has  extended  her  sphere  from 
'.':l-  (  ana  I.  M, Us  {>,  i^ake  Cliad,  and  lier  b(jundaries  in  this  direction, 
ht:!i:''  liiialiy  settled,  .-lie  may,  without  distraction,  devote  her  en- 
t:i:n-~  and  rr-wunes  i.,  the  (le\elopment  of  her  compact  block  of 
"'''""'.'>  Ihthert'.  I'raiice  !ia>  done  little  but  add  to  her  already 
c' -.tea-i.t.   irr;;i,  ;k',  in   .^'eiie-anibia,  knd  that  is  still  her  chief  oc- 


STRUGGLE     FOR     THE     NIGER  171 

1894-1910 

cupation.  Whether  when  she  has  reached  the  Hmits  of  her  enter- 
prise in  this  direction  she  will  ever  succeed  in  developing  a  great 
commerce  in  Senegal  and  the  Sudan  it  is  impossible  to  say;  at 
present,  after  being  at  work  for  three  centuries,  she  has  not  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  results  at  all  proportionate  to  her  enormous  out- 
lay of  lives,  labor,  and  capital. 


Chapter    XIV 

GKRMAN  PROGRKSS  IN  WEST  AFRICA.     1865-1910 

FOR  v.irious  reasons  German  proj^rcss  in  East  Africa  has 
hcon  dealt  with  at  j^rcater  Iciii^'th  than  will  be  necessary  in 
the  ca>^o  oi  the  other  spheres  of  German  influence  in  Africa. 
I'ast  Africa  is  the  most  extensive  and  commercially  the  most  in- 
tlucntia!  of  all  the  German  annexations;  its  short  history  has  been 
a  l)n<v  ;nid  stirrinc^  one:  and  the  methods  adopted  in  East  Africa, 
and  referred  to  in  some  detail  in  a  i)rcceding'  chapter,  may  be  taken 
a>^  typical  of  the  Germans.  It  will,  therefore,  be  unnecessary  to 
deal  at  such  lenj^th  with  the  course  of  events  in  German  West 
Africa  since  the  meeting-  of  tlie  I'erlin  Cont2:rcss.  At  the  date  of 
iiiis  Giuiqre'^s  Germany  had  planted  her  flag  on  the  Gold  Coast 
(  Toi;.  tla-id  ),  in  the  Cameroons,  and  on  the  coast  lying  between  the 
Orange  Ri\er  and  tlie  River  Cunene.  The  last-named  district  is 
k-i.'wn  a'>  (u'rman  Southwest  Africa,  and  with  that  we  shall  deal 
hef.  ire  .Lining  farther  north.  It  has  already  been  seen  that  both  the 
h.'nie  government  and  the  Ca])e  had  to  give  way  at  almost  every 
|)oiiit  in  face  of  the  unyielding  ])ersistence  of  Prince  Bismarck,  who 
w.'uld  not  Consent  to  leave  any  pf)rtion  of  this  coast  except  W'alfish 
V.AV  under  the  Rrilisli  llag.  By  the  beginning  of  1885  the  in- 
e\it;il'!e  had  l)een  recognized  both  in  London  and  at  Caj)e  Town, 
and  a  joint  commission  w^as  appointed  to  settle  details  as  to 
lrrni:iT>  and  individual  rights.  The  commission  completed  its 
\v.>rk  in  September.  1885.  B.y  the  British  memorandum  of  De- 
cember J.}.  1884,  it  liad  virtually  been  conceded  that  no  objection 
V, .luld  Ik-  ra;-i.-il  to  Ciermany  extending  her  s])liere  in  Southwest 
.\irica  ;is  tar  ea-t  a^  Jo  east  loni^itude  up  to  22^  of  south  latitude. 
It  i-  true  tli'it  atti'ni])ts  were  made  to  inHuencc  the  Damara  chiefs 
.•:L;;iin-t  iiu-  Gcrni.i;!  protectorate,  and  to  induce  tliem  to  offer  alle- 
,i:;anrr  t.,  i-.;i'^l,iiiil.  l'ii\ate  indi\iduals  and  companies  wdio  had 
<  blamed  cnce— ioii-;  fi-,,111  ilio  native  chiefs  before  (jcmiany  en- 
tered! t'le  !'.:.!.  tried  to  make  as  much  of  them  as  possible;  but 
M-.cli    ;.tt(.iiip:~    nici    with    little    encuin-agement    from    the    home 


GERMAN     WEST    AFRICA  173 

1885-1890 

government.  Certain  of  the  islands  off  the  coast  were  recog- 
nized by  Germany  as  under  British  suzerainty,  though  the  claims 
of  British  subjects  to  mining  rights  on  the  mainland  were  cut 
down  to  somewhat  narrow  limits.  An  attempt  was  even  made 
to  establish  a  republic  under  the  name  of  Upingtonia  in  Ovampo- 
land,  but  without  success.  The  German  agents  continued  to 
acquire  rights  over  the  territories  of  various  chiefs  in  the  interior. 
By  agreement  with  Portugal  of  December  20,  1886,  the  River 
Cunene  was  fixed  upon  as  the  boundary  between  Portuguese  West 
Africa  and  German  Southwe:;t  Africa.  In  this  arrangement  with 
Portugal,  as  in  the  Franco-Portuguese  arrangement  of  May,  1886, 
it  was  admitted  that  Portugal  was  at  liberty  to  extend  her  dominion 
right  across  the  continent  from  her  West  to  her  East  African  pos- 
sessions. Even  before  this  the  British  Minister  at  Lisbon  had 
drawn  attention  to  the  fixed  idea  that  had  taken  possession  of  the 
Portuguese  Government  that  "  anything  likely  to  interfere  with  a 
free  expansion  eastward  of  Portuguese  territory  into  the  heart  of 
the  South  Africa  continent  traverses  a  fixed  purpose  of  Portuguese 
colonial  policy."  It  was  an  easy  concession  for  France  and  Ger- 
many to  make,  as  it  did  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  their 
respective  spheres  of  influence,  but  this  claim  was  one  that  was 
never  conceded  by  Great  Britain. 

It  was  only  in  the  Anglo-German  agreement  of  July,  1890,  that 
the  final  delimitation  between  German  Southwest  Africa  and 
British  South  Africa  was  arranged,  events  meantime  having  taken 
place  which  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  and  which 
quite  ignored  the  "  fixed  purpose  of  Portuguese  colonial  policy  " 
above  alluded  to.  By  this  agreement  the  Orange  River  is  recog- 
nized as  the  southern  limit  of  German  territory  as  far  as  20°  east 
longitude.  This  gave  to  German  Southwest  Africa  a  total  area  of 
some  240,000  square  miles,  with  a  scanty  population  of  200,000 
natives. 

Though  none  of  the  serious  military  operations  which  have  so 
materially  retarded  progress  in  East  Africa  have  been  necessary  in 
Southwest  Africa,  the  first  of  Germany's  colonial  ventures  has  been 
a  constant  source  of  trouljlc.  It  was  only  in  October,  1885,  that  the 
great  Damara  chief,  Kamaherero,  was  induced  to  accept  German 
protection,  and  since  then  he  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  en- 
deavored to  cancel  bis  consent.  One  powerful  chief,  Ilendrik 
Wittboi,  has  proved  sijccinlly  refractory,  and  the  acting  commis- 


,7i  AFUICA 

'  1885-1894 

siojuT  li.ul  several  seriiuis  cntraircnieiil!^  witli  liim.  So  diflicult, 
m.Ieetl.  was  it  f.niiid  to  snlxliic  the  chief,  tliat  in  the  end  of  1893 
\'<i\  l-"raiK«'i"i  was  .suiHMseiled  l)y  another  commissioner,  who  in  the 
><mniner  oi  iS<)4  siuveeded  in  inihicinj^f  W'itthoi  to  snrrender.  Thus 
one  cjreat  oh-^tacle  to  jiroqrcss  has  hccn  removed.  Petty  wars  be- 
tween the  various  trilics  of  Damaras  and  Namaquas  are  ahnost 
coti<tnnily  .LToiiijj  on.  and  arc  eml)ittercd  by  rch^ious  fanaticism. 
l!u;  with  the  strong-  mihtary  force  at  the  command  of  the  Germans, 
all  the-e  di^turhini;  intlucnces  must  he  suppressed.  The  claims  of 
British  criii-rssiouiuiircs  caused  considerable  trouble  for  a  time,  and 
in  iS()j  were  declared  invalid  by  the  German  Government. 

Ilerr  l.mierit^.  of  course,  soon  found  that  without  assistance 
he  hiin>elf  could  never  do  much  to  develop  the  resources  of  so  vast 
a  rei^ion.  In  the  s])rin<:^  of  i<S85.  therefore,  he  made  over  his 
rii;hts.  for  the  sum  of  ^75.000.  to  a  German  Colonial  Society  for 
Southwest  Africa,  which  was  incorporated  by  the  imperial  govern- 
ment, with  a  ca])iial  oi  St,oo,ooo,  ca])able  of  beiui^  increased.  At 
the  >aine  lime  an  imperial  commission  was  ajipointcd  to  adiuinister 
the  territ"r\-  uu  behalf  of  the  German  Government.  Courts  were 
c-tahli<lied.  and  a  military  force  provided.  Here,  as  in  East  Africa 
and  elsewhere,  the  Germans  set  themselves  with  zeal  and  intelli- 
i:e:u-e  to  the  exploration  of  their  territory,  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
what  were  its  real  resources.  ICxpeditions  were  sent  out  in  va- 
riMus  directions.  They  were  accf)mpanied  by  a  thoroughly  qualified 
-cientit'ic  staff,  and  the  result  is  that  we  have  had  for  some  time  a 
\cry  c  inplete  idea  of  the  character  and  resources  of  Germany's  first 
f"''  ny.  'fliongh  not  highly  encouraging,  at  the  same  time,  the 
<  '  -erxati'iis  of  competent  ex])lorcrs.  .and  the  experiments  made  by 
( lerni.ar.  scliler-;.  j)ro\e  that  v/ith  capital  nnd  industry  the  country 
nay  he  made  to  \ield  a  fair  reinrn  to  the  farmers  and  ranchmen. 
\  try  prcrisc  Mh^er. ations  as  tn  rainfall,  water  supply,  and  the  char- 
.iCttT  I -I  the  soil  have  been  collected,  v.'hich  will  form  a  safe  guide 
'"  •ntci!:-^:;!  nmlertaking-.  flcrman  farmers  might  hnd  a  home 
:::  i  ie  .::l:1:(t  re^i' in^  ,>\  tlie  interior,  but  only  in  small  numbers;  as 
a  field  f '  r  !-.!n-'.pean  enn'gration  I  )amaraland  and  Xamaqualand 
.'tre  01  liniitc!  capacity.  In  the  southern  ])ortion  agriculture,  except 
;n  .  rie  ..r  tv...  i;i\.ired  ^|).  .t^.  is  impMssible.      Tn  the  north,  on  the 


.,! 


cr  .::•:.!.  ■.'.  :ie;\-  h'.ih  water  supply  and  rainfrdl  are  more  plenti- 

-^  pr  'JiK!-.  (..nld  lie  gniwn   with  advantage.     Over  the 

■  'ry  t.R-  i;.ii:iall  i>  deficieiU.  but  iKjt  to  such  ail  extent  as 


GERMAN     WEST     AFRICA  175 

1885-1894 

was  at  one  time  believed ;  precise  observations  show  that  even  in  the 
south  enough  falls  in  most  years  to  encourage  a  system  of  storage. 
Cattle  and  sheep  can  be  reared  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  colony, 
and  a  profitable  trade  is  carried  on  toward  Bechuanaland  and  other 
countries  in  South  Africa.  With  proper  means  of  transit  the 
export  of  wool  might  be  conducted  with  profit.  At  present  there 
is  a  limited  trade  by  sea  in  cattle  and  wool  with  Cape  Colony,  and 
the  country  lying  to  the  north  of  the  German  territory  as  far  as  the 
Congo.  Until  recently  the  only  harbor  was  the  British  port  of 
Walfish  Bay,  which  somewhat  hampered  German  operations.  But 
in  1893  a  practicable  port  was  discovered  near  to  Swakop  Mouth, 
in  German  territory,  whence  access  to  the  interior  was  easier  than 
from  Walfish  Bay.     Here  a  new  harbor  was  commenced. 

But  it  was  the  much-vaunted  mining  resources  of  the  country 
from  which  rich  returns  were  expected.  It  was  hoped  that  copper 
would  be  found  as  abundantly  in  the  German  protectorate  as  it  has 
been  in  the  northwest  of  Cape  Colony.  Copper  no  doubt  has  been 
found  in  the  interior,  and  could  it  be  cheaply  worked  on  the  spot, 
and  cheaply  conveyed  to  a  convenient  harbor  on  the  coast,  it  might 
pay  in  a  small  way.  To  quote  the  words  of  Dr.  Schinz,  who  has 
himself  made  a  very  thorough  exploration  of  this  country:  "  It  is 
well  known  how  little  was  realized  of  Likleritz's  extravagant  hopes. 
The  chief  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  undertaking  was,  no  doubt,  the 
inhospitality  of  the  country,  and  the  sand  along  the  coast  made  the 
connection  with  the  belter  land  in  the  interior  so  difficult  that  the 
mineral  deposits  could  only  be  worked  under  exceptionally  favor- 
able circumstances.  But,  inasmuch  as  the  prospecting  work  of  the 
miners  disclosed  no  deposits  or  veins  worthy  of  mention,  the  life- 
thread  of  the  whole  undertaking  was  cut  in  twain.  The  trade  with 
the  natives  also  amounted  to  nothing  from  the  beginning,  for  the 
natives  possessed  nothing  to  give  in  exchange  for  the  goods 
ofifered."  But  subsequent  investigations  have  shown  that  probably 
this  estimate  was  somewhat  too  desponding.  Not  only  has  copper 
been  found  in  various  places,  but  also  lead  and  gold,  botli  quartz  and 
alluvial ;  but  the  two  latter  in  such  small  quantities  so  far  that  at 
present  they  are  not  of  practical  account. 

At  various  times  there  have  been  rumors  that  Germany  would 
be  glad  to  get  rid  of  lier  not  very  i)r()niising  colony.  As  an  append- 
age of  a  settled  and  progressive  and  C(im])arativcly  populous  country 
like  Cape  Coluny,  this  rcgiun  might  be  turned  t()  some  account,  as 


i-i:  AFRICA 

'  • "  1886-1906 

.»  s. 'inoo  of  f.M'il  supply.  I'ut  as  an  independent  colony  with  a 
!aii:o  adMiiii!>tr;iti\c  statT.  Diily  nu)dt'rately  suited  for  wliite  settle- 
nu-nt.  uiih  a  scintv  native  population  constantly  engaged  in  inter- 
tribal wars,  it  must  for  long  prove  an  expensive  luxury.  Negotia- 
tio!is  were  ^<i\  more  than  t)ne  occasion  on  foot  for  making  the 
country  over  to  a  r.ritish  symlicate,  and  that  with  the  approval  of 
tlic  (K-rman  (Government:  hut  these  at  first  met  with  violent  pro- 
tects f'om  the  extreme  colonial  party  in  Germany.  A  compromise 
was  etlected  in  the  formation  of  an  Anglo-German  Company,  sup- 
ported to  a  great  extent  by  T.ritish  capital.  Under  the  auspices  of 
thi--  c. 'n:p;inv  a  w  ell-e(|uipi)ed  expedition  was  sent  out  from  iMigland 
in  the  autumn  of  189J  for  the  purpose  of  prospecting  and  initiating 
^teps  for  the  development  of  what  resources  the  country  possesses. 
This  pri>|)eeting  expedition  did  good  work,  and  its  reports  as  to  the 
minerals  and  ranching  capacities  of  the  country  are  on  the  whole 
favorable.  Several  companies  and  syndicates  have  been  formed 
:\uA  are  at  work,  so  that  on  the  whole  the  prospects  of  Germany's 
Ur>i  eoluiiv  are  more  promising  than  they  were  ten  or  a  dozen 
veai-  agi».  Tiiere  are  altogether  about  4670  whites  in  the  colony, 
including  8J5  tro(>j)s:  the  Germans  number  about  2600,  mostly 
functionaries  .-md  soldiers;  there  are  several  hundred  Boers,  also, 
'i'he  value  of  the  total  exj)orts  in  1901  was  about  $250,000,  and 
th.e  MiMM  rts  Sj.oc^o.ooo.  The  administrative  center  of  the  colony  is 
Gr  ---Windhoek,  some  distance  in  the  interior  from  Walfish  Bay. 
Se\e:al  giMxl  buildings,  public  and  private,  have  been  erected  here. 
W  lien  the  best  is  said,  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  a  country  whose 
.igricniiural  capabilities  are  limited,  which  has  powerful  competition 
in  cattle  re  iring.  whose  mining  resources  are  doubtful,  with  an 
.'.'hiiiiii-tiati'M  which  tlemands  a  large  yearly  grant  from  the 
(jLiriia!!  Parliament,  .and  a  companv  that  with  its  subordinate  com- 
i  :;:rie.-,  ha-  alieailv  sunk  a  comparatively  enormous  capital,  progress 
n;-:.t  be  -!■  '.v. 

T"  tMvn  to  the  much  more  hopeful  region  of  the  Caineroons, 
it  V.;.  ]'>\\]\A  that,  by  the  time  the  Berlin  Congress  met,  Germany 
\'.;i>  !,i:i';.  i.i  ])■,  -r-<ion  here.  and.  following  her  usual  method,  had 
already  laa.!  V.iv  natives  "a  sharp  lesson."  This  policy  had  to  be 
'  ■■'']■:(■']  !■:]{  on  M-.eral  occasions,  so  that  it  was  not  till  the  first  half 
:  i^^'i  that  all  '';c  r<  a~t  chief-,  and  thrisc  middlemen  just  behind 
*  ■^'  <^'''-'  o  '  '  ];uvu  in  the  habit  of  ta])ping  the  interior  trade, 
'•'•''^"  ■  ■        :.t   rv.(.";i'iled   to  the  German   suzerainty.       But 


GERMAN     WEST     AFRICA  177 

1885-1894 

these  middlemen  continued  to  show  reluctance  in  giving  up  their 
profitable  calling,  and  even  at  a  recent  date  considerable  firmness 
had  to  be  manifested  in  dealing  with  them.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  German  officials  have  in  the  Cameroons  occasionally  ex- 
hibited great  want  of  tact  in  dealing  with  the  natives,  and  especially 
with  the  imported  native  troops.  This  led  in  1893- 1894  to  some 
manifestations  of  rebellion,  which  were  repressed  by  the  commis- 
sioner by  measures  of  such  extreme  cruelty  as  to  lead  to  his  recall. 
No  European  nation  can  in  this  respect  afford  to  cast  a  stone  at  an- 
other, though  it  must  be  said  that  German  officials  have  often 
shown  an  uncompromising  harshness  in  their  method  of  dealing 
with  the  natives. 

A  provisional  arrangement  as  to  the  northern  limit  of  the 
German  Cameroons  territory  was  come  to  with  England  in  May, 
1885.  This  arrangement  was  modified  in  August,  1886,  and  finally 
settled  by  the  famous  Anglo-German  agreement  of  July,  1890. 
With  France,  Germany  had  no  difficulty  in  making  an  arrangement 
as  to  the  southern  boundary  of  her  newly  acquired  territory.  On 
December  24,  1885,  an  agreement  was  reached  regarding  the  limit 
between  the  German  Cameroons  and  the  French  Gaboon;  and  by 
the  agreement  of  February,  1894  (referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  the 
Niger),  the  Hinterland  of  the  Cameroons  was  definitely  fixed.  As 
in  other  African  arrangements,  so  in  that  relating  to  the  Cameroons, 
there  were  assured  to  the  subjects  of  the  Signatory  Powers  freedom 
of  trade  and  navigation,  the  exclusion  of  differential  tariffs,  and 
other  privileges  which  in  practice  are  found  to  have  little  value. 
Finally,  to  leave  Germany  a  perfectly  free  hand,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment ignored  certain  treaties  made  in  the  name  of  England ; 
and  the  station  at  Victoria,  in  Ambas  Bay,  which  had  been  occu- 
pied by  English  missionaries  for  forty  years,  was  made  over  to 
Germany  for  a  payment  of  $20,000  to  the  missionary  society. 

Early  in  18S5  Bismarck,  in  spite  of  the  continued  opposition 
of  the  anti-colonial  party,  easily  succeeded  in  carrying  the  votes  nec- 
essary for  establishing  the  Cameroons  as  a  Crown  colony.  A 
governor,  with  a  considerable  staff  of  officials,  was  appointed, 
and  all  the  machinery  of  government  after  German  methods  estab- 
lished. A  series  of  ordinances  was  promulgated,  imposing  dues 
and  taxes  of  various  kinds,  and  especially  levying  very  heavy  duties 
on  the  import  of  spirits.  Notwithstanding  tlie  express  request  of 
Prince  Bismarck,  the  traders  in  the  Cameroons  shrank  from  form- 


17rt  AFRICA 

1885-1894 

inp  tlicni>clvcs  into  a  corporation  for  regulating  local  affairs,  so 
tlial  the  t;o\crnor  had  to  take  cognizance  of  local  as  well  as  of  more 
general  matters  oi  government.  The  total  area  included  in  the 
Camcroons.  taking  in  the  territory  acquired  up  to  Lake  Chad,  is 
mer  io<^.(>v>  stpiarc  miles,  with  a  population  estimated  roughly  at 
three  milhons  and  a  half,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  conditions  which 
prevail  fartlier  south.  Indeed  here  we  arc  in  one  of  the  most  thickly 
jv»piil.ited  rei^i-'us  o\  Africa,  especially  along  the  coast  and  the 
creeks,  and  at  many  i)oints  in  the  interior. 

The  coast  natives  hclong  mainly  to  the  Bantu  stock,  while 
those  C'i  the  interior  are  Sudanese.  They  arc  keen  traders,  but  the 
Germans  at  first  ftnuid  all  their  efforts  to  open  up  the  interior 
fiarred  by  those  tribes  which  inhabit  the  districts  in  the  immediate 
interior,  and  act  :is  middlemen  between  the  people  of  the  interior 
and  the  traders  on  the  coast.  Here,  as  in  their  other  African  pos- 
sessions, the  Germans  lost  no  time  in  sending  out  expeditions, 
uHiIcr  tried  leaders,  to  open  up  tlie  interior.  These  expeditions,  as 
is  usual  with  such  German  projects,  were  partly  military  and 
partly  exploratory.  In  attempting  to  break  through  the  cordon 
of  middlemen,  serious  disasters  happened  to  the  first  expedition 
under  Lieutenant  Kund :  however.  Gemiany  meant  to  succeed,  and 
HI  a  marvelously  short  time  established  stations  at  various  points 
in  the  inleri(^r. 

Germany,  like  France,  had  her  eye  on  Lake  Chad,  and  large 
^imis  were  voted  by  the  Reichstag  for  the  purpose  of  extending 
(ierman  iiitlueiice  to  that  lake.  An  expedition  under  Zintgraff 
and  .Morgcn.  accomj)rinicd  by  a  miltary  force  and  representatives  of 
t!ie  trading  tlrms  interested  in  the  Camcroons.  endeavored  in  1890 
to  rcac'i  llagirmi  from  the  station  of  Bali  as  a  starting-point.  But 
t!:e  expelition  met  with  a  severe  clieck  from  the  natives;  many  of 
It-  members  were  killed,  and  Morgcn  Iiad  to  make  the  best  of  his 
w:ty  (1  ,v.n  the  Benue.  Later  expeditions  have  been  more  for- 
t'lnatc:  t':-'.-  under  \'on  Stettin  j)enctrated  to  Yola  and  made 
treatie-  tliat  enab'< d  Germany  to  rleal  on  advantageous  terms  both 
V,  :t:i  I-.p-lanl  aiul  I'rance.  Ivjually  successful  has  been  an  expedi- 
t;  ri  II!  '-c  oyijK.site  direction,  resulting  in  valuable  additions  to 
a  k-h  wledgc  of  the  c:i])abilities  of  the  country.  Germany  has  suc- 
(er'lrd  :n  l:rmlv  '^ernring  her  influence,  not  only  on  the  coast,  but  at 
many  irr;;  .rtarit  ]y  r.u\^  in  tlie  interior.  What  can  be  made  of  that 
inter:  iT   reniains    to    he   seen;   the    Germans   have    here    the   same 


GERMAN     WEST     AFRICA  179 

1890-1910 

problem  to  solve  that  must  be  solved  by  other  European  powers 
which  have  undertaken  the  development  of  tropical  Africa.  But 
it  may  be  worth  noticing  that  besides  the  Cameroons  Mountains 
there  are  several  heights  that  rise  above  the  plateau  in  the  interior 
to  from  8000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea-level,  which  may  in  future 
prove  useful  as  sanatoria.  Meantime  on  the  coast  the  busy  trade 
established  by  British  subjects  continues  to  be  carried  on  and  in- 
creased by  their  German  successors.  The  German  "  Plantation- 
Company"  and  other  associations,  as  well  as  private  traders,  have 
established  plantations  of  coco-palms,  cacao,  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton, 
and  other  cultures,  some  of  which  have  given  successful  results. 
The  staple  exports,  however^  are  still  the  natural  products  of  the 
country,  including  ivory,  skins,  and  gums.  The  palm-oil  and  palm- 
kernel  trade  is  so  far  the  most  lucrative,  though  even  yet  British 
vessels  do  as  much  trade  in  this  as  is  done  by  German  vessels.  The 
total  exports  (1908)  were  valued  at  almost  14,530,074  marks,  and 
the  imports  at  17,297,000  marks.  Instead  of  the  river  hulks  in 
which  the  old  traders  used  to  live,  good  houses  of  stone  are  now 
to  be  seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Cameroons  River,  in  which  officials 
and  merchants  are  able  to  lead  fairly  comfortable  lives.  Macadam- 
ized roads  surround  all  the  coast  settlements^  while  experimental 
stations  and  botanical  gardens  give  an  air  of  civilization  to  the 
country.  The  total  number  of  whites  in  1908  was  1,128,  of  which 
971  were  German.  A  number  of  these  are  officials,  merchants,  and 
missionaries. 

Altogether,  the  Cameroons  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and 
promising  of  German  colonics,  thanks  partly  to  the  energy  and 
administrative  skill  of  its  first  governor,  Baron  von  Soden.  Its 
revenues,  which  in  1890  were  $72,500,  and  had  to  be  supple- 
mented by  a  grant  from  the  mother  country  of  twice  that  amount, 
were  estimated  for  1908-9  at  7,208,366  marks ;  to  cover  expenses, 
there  is  added  a  subsidy  from  the  government  of  about  5,000,000 
marks.  Only  in  exceptional  years  has  this  colony  been  able  to  pay 
its  own  way.  Yet,  unlike  France  and  England,  Germany  does  not 
overburden  her  colonics  with  officials,  nor  are  these  paid  on  anything 
like  the  same  scale  as  those  who  swarm  in  English  Crown  colonies. 

Of  all  the  German  colom'es  in  Africa  the  little  block  of  some 
33,700  square  miles  known  as  Togoland  lias  so  far  been  decidedly 
the  most  prosperous.  Already  considerable  trade  was  established 
on  the  coast  when  tlie  German  flag  was  first  raised.     It  forms  one 


mo  AFRICA 

1888  1910 

of  the  liiijhwnN'S  to  aiul  irciu  the  thickly  populated  portion  of  the 
Sudan.  It  is  of  limited  extent,  with  a  population  roughly  esti- 
matctl  at  (yx^.ooo.  N'o  expenditure  for  formidable  military  expedi- 
tions into  the  interior  lias  been  necessary,  while  its  administration 
is  simple  and  inexpensive.  It  is  placed  under  an  imperial  gover- 
nor, with  some  few  other  oflicials;  unlike  the  other  colonies  it  has 
had  a  local  council  consisting  of  representatives  of  the  merchants.  A 
militarv  force  of  150  negroes,  ofticered  by  seven  Germans,  is  suf- 
tk-icnt  to  in.iintain  order.  The  country  is  capable  of  growing  al- 
most a:iv  tropical  products,  while  the  forests  abound  in  oil  palms, 
cacHitchtHic.  and  other  woods;  though  so  far  the  commerce  is 
aiir..'St  entirely  a  barter  trade  for  palm-oil  and  palm-kernels. 
According  to  latest  statistics  there  are  224  Europeans,  including 
ofncials.  in  Togoland ;  of  these  216  are  Germans.  In  1901-1902, 
21"  17  vessels,  of  about  375,000  tons,  entered  the  ports  of  the  colony. 
Ti\golan(l  has  about  thirty-live  miles  of  coast,  and  is  wedged 
in  between  l-'rench  territory  on  the  east  and  the  British  Gold  Coast 
on  t!ic  west.  The  approximate  limits  east  and  west  were  arranged 
s  i'>n  after  the  annexation.  But  here,  as  in  the  Cameroons,  the 
Germans  did  not  content  themselves  w'ith  squatting  on  the  coast 
an<l  waiting  for  any  trade  that  might  come  to  them.  Beginning 
in  1S85,  a  series  of  expeditions  penetrated  the  interior,  some  of 
tl'.cm  reaching  as  far  as  Mossi,  well  within  the  great  l>cnd  of  the 
Xijcr.  Some  130  miles  in  the  interior  a  station,  under  the  ap- 
propriate name  of  I>ismarcksburg.  was  founded,  and  this  is  the 
j)  ;nt  of  ik'jiarture  of  most  of  the  expeditions  to  the  interior.  Only 
tr. e  i\:>.\<  ivm  the  coast  another  station,  Misa-IToehe,  has  been 
1  'cated  in  what  is  supposed  to  be  a  particularly  healthful  situation. 
'1  ''crc  arc  -evcral  trading  stations  on  the  coast,  but  there  is  no  grcr.t 
CKtrr^'it  a^  in  Lagos  or  Accra,  each  tribe  having  its  own  trad'j 
C(:.t(.T.  'liie  I\i\er  X'ojta,  which  forms  the  western  boundary  of 
tlio  (  .lo:iy.  has  In  en  i)ro\cd  to  be  navigable  bv  steam  iov  some  200 
nr..'-^.  .a  \:\r\  (,f  i^Mx-at  importance  for  the  commercial  devckjpmcn!. 
<  1  t!.e  Country.  (iood  caravan  roads  have  been  made  in  various 
<!:r<.-tion  .  'Ilic  total  oxj)orts  of  the  cr)lony  (1^)08)  were  valued  at 
5.915.'")  :nrirk<.  '\\::  inij)orts  at  about  r),899,684  marks.  The  duties 
l<vi'd  ii)  ■[<f>yr)\  niTc  tJKiii  ])aid  the  expenses  of  administra- 
t:o!i;  To_'  ',11!  1  1,:^  luc'Icd  loss  imperial  aid  than  any  other  of  the 
(,<-rv.::in  r.i  ;,;.•<  ill  Africa.  The  German  Tfjgoland  Company, 
^  ■■"  ''  '    ■'■     ''^^-'^    v.itli    a    view    both    to    commercial    operations 


GERMAN     WEST     AFRICA  181 

1888-1910 

and  to  the  establishment  of  plantations,  has  already  been  suc- 
cessful in  both  directions;  experimental  stations  are  at  work  in 
several  localities.  It  is  expected  that  in  time  coffee  will  become 
a  product  of  great  commercial  importance,  while  the  cocoa-palm 
is  very  extensively  planted,  so  that  in  time  cocoanuts  and  copra 
may  figure  among  the  exports.  Maize  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  most  European  vegetables  can  be  grown. 

It  was  only  by  the  Anglo-German  agreement  of  July,  1890, 
that  the  boundary  between  the  British  Gold  Coast  and  German 
Togoland  was  definitely  settled.  The  situation  of  Togoland  is 
not  all  that  could  be  desired,  in  a  commercial  way;  there  are  no 
real  harbors  in  German  territory,  and  no  navigable  streams  except 
the  Volta,  and  as  the  Volta  itself  is  in  its  lower  course  within 
British  territory,  it  is  doubtful  how  far  its  navigability  may  be  of 
advantage  to  German  trade.  It  will  have  been  seen  in  a  former 
chapter  that  it  will  scarcely  be  possible  for  either  the  Gold  Coast  or 
Germany  to  push  their  spheres  farther  inland,  as  the  French  on  the 
one  side  and  the  Royal  Niger  Company  on  the  other  have  by 
their  treaties  with  the  native  chiefs  practically  barred  the  way  to 
the  interior.  But  should  Germany  be  confined  within  her  present 
somewhat  narrow  limits  in  Togoland,  the  country  is  populous 
enough  and  its  resources  abundant  enough  to  yield  a  good  return 
to  modest  commercial  enterprise. 


Chapter   XV 

BRITISH  KAST  AFRICA.     1886-1910 

I\  tloaliiii^  with  (Icniiaii  ojicrations  in  East  Africa  enou.^h 
Iil;!::  \]a<  hi'cii  thrnwii  upon  l>ritish  desinfiis  and  disillusion- 
incn;-  in  that  rci^M'on  to  render  anythine;-  more  tlian  a  brief 
ri'i'creme  uiniecissarv.  Sir  John  Kirk,  who  had  long  labored  to 
lirnnii'te  Piriti>ii  interests  in  and  aronnd  Zanzibar,  was  forced  by  a 
i;.  AcrnnK-nt  which  had  l)een  ihoronj^lily  bnllied  by  Bismarck  to 
iK'>t..w  the  resnlts  of  his  elYorts  upon  Germany.  The  Chancellor's 
vij^orous  policy  extorted  concessions  from  the  sultan  at  the  can- 
non's niouiii.  and  left  the  Germans  in  full  possession  of  the  choicest 
rei^M.  !i  i'i  ilie  countrv.  tliat  of  the  Kilimanjaro.  The  British  com- 
pany, which  thonj^ht  it  could  present  a  clear  title  to  mucb  of  this 
;'.nd  oilier  I'asl  African  districts,  was  obliged  to  give  way  and  re- 
strict its  pro])(iscd  tk'ld  of  operations. 

Tlie  lir-t  Anglo-German  agreement  was  concluded  at  the  end 
'  f  iSS^).  I'nder  the  jjresidency  of  Sir  William  Mackinnon  a 
:!iini|jrr  of  i'ritisli  capitalists  formed  themselves  into  the  British 
l-.:;-i  Africa  Association,  and  set  tb.cmselves  to  acfjuire  rights  over 
l!ie  territory  which  had  been  rescued  from  Germany  as  the  British 
■~])!n.rc.  Mackinnon,  the  founder  of  steam  communication  with 
/.;n/;bar.  liad  for  long  been  a  favorite  with  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar, 
and  he  had  n(j  difliculty  in  obtaining  from  the  sultan,  under  date 
May  _'4.  iNSj,  a  coiice-^ion  of  the  ten-mile  strip  of  coast  from  the 
i  niha  on  t';e  •^ouili  to  I'ipini  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tana  River  on 
'  <■  nat'.i.  I  l:i-  c  •:!ce--ion  was  to  be  for  a  term  of  fifty  years.  The 
'  ■!'-ii-;i'y  "■■'  to  ha\e  tlie  eiuire  administration  of  the  territory  in 
the  snltan'-  iianie.  In  consideration  for  this  concession  the  sultan 
V.  a-  {• '  rcct;-.  c  'Iw  whole  amount  of  the  customs  dues  which  he 
rin  (.•:•>  i-'l  at  tl.r  date  of  the  coi:ce>-ion,  in  addition  to  fifty  per  cent, 
"t  '■•'■  ••'Mi-'iial  net  rc\enuc  which  might  accrue  to  the  company 
I'-r  ::.c  ci:-:  n:-  'iuiie-  of  the  prtrts  included  in  the  concessicjii. 
Ab-nt  ;::c  -::]]iv  I'.ite  agrcenniit^  were  made  with  a  considerable 
i.aiuotr  oi  natr, e  c;;'.e:,~  in  and  beyond  tlie  main  concession,  which 

i»-^ 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  183 

1888 

served  to  complete  and  extend  the  grant  made  by  the  sultan,  giv- 
ing, indeed,  to  the  company  sovereign  rights  for  a  distance  of  200 
miles  from  the  coast.  With  these  concessions  in  their  hands  the 
association  of  British  capitalists  had  no  hesitation  in  approaching 
the  government  praying  that  they  might  be  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  as  the  Imperial  British  East  Africa  Company.  Tliere  was 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  such  a  charter  (September  3,  1888),  into 
the  details  of  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter.  It  practically  au- 
thorized the  company  to  administer  the  territory  which  had  been 
leased  to  it  by  the  sultan,  and  any  other  territories  which  might  be 
acquired  in  the  future.  No  important  step  was  to  be  taken  without 
the  consent  of  the  secretary  of  state;  everything  possible  was  to 
be  done  to  develop  the  territory  and  suppress  the  slave-trade.  Ad- 
ministrators were  to  be  appointed,  provision  made  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  and  for  the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  this  new 
section  of  the  empire  on  the  system  of  a  Crown  colony,  so  far  as 
that  was  possible  under  the  conditions.  The  position  thus  created 
for  the  British  East  Africa  Company,  like  the  position  of  other 
chartered  companies,  was  a  peculiar  one.  The  extensive  area  em- 
braced in  the  limits  indicated  above,  some  200,000  square  miles, 
was  virtually  declared  a  part  of  the  British  Empire  under  the  desig- 
nation of  "  sphere  of  influence."  The  government  spent  nothing 
upon  it,  appointed  no  officers  to  administer  it,  undertook  no  direct 
control  of  its  affairs.  The  company,  by  its  charter,  represented  the 
British  Government,  and  carried  on  all  the  functions  delegated  by 
government  to  a  Colonial  administration.  Out  of  its  own  resources 
the  company  had  to  carry  on  its  trade,  develop  the  commercial  re- 
sources of  the  country,  and  endeavor  to  reap  dividends  for  its  share- 
holders. At  the  same  time  it  was  bound  to  estalilish  an  adminis- 
tration in  its  various  branches,  pay  a  governor  and  many  officials, 
maintain  a  small  army,  and  try  to  push  its  way  into  the  interior. 
This  it  had  to  do  also  under  the  restrictions  of  the  Berlin  Act,  as 
regarded  the  interior,  but  not  the  coast,  whicli  it  held  under  conces- 
sion from  the  sultan,  thus  leaving  it  free  to  levy  taxes,  as  the 
sultan  had  done,  on  all  goods  coming  from  the  interior  irrespective 
of  their  origin  or  destination.  This  right,  for  which  the  company 
continued  to  pay  tlie  Zanzibar  arlministration  in  full,  was  afterward 
arbitrarily  withdrawn  by  the  British  Government ;  the  latter,  with- 
out regard  to  the  rights  of  the  company, 'placed  tlic  coast  protec- 
torate under  the  free  zone  provision  of  the  Berlin  Act. 


isi  AFRICA 

'  '^  *  1888 

Ofn  i«>iis1y  U^r  n  company  to  open  up  and  administer  an  exten- 
sive tcrrit.'i-v  v.\  a  continent  like  Africa,  liavinc:  little  or  no  analogies 
uitli  India,  a  vcrv  considerable  capital  would  be  required,  or  tbc 
.•.>^:tlt^^•  nni^t  be  <'f  sucb  a  cbaractcr  as  would  yield  a  fair  return  on 
a  more  or  less  immediate  outlay.  In  tbe  Nij^er  rep:ion  there  is  plenty 
i^f  trade  t.«  be  done  in  native  products  likely  to  yield  a  fair  return, 
and  the  Xtirer  (^«nipany  is  authorized  to  levy  considerable  dues, 
hi  {he  sphere  .allotted  to  the  Rritish  South  Africa  Company  there 
is  reported  to  be  abundance  (^f  j^old ;  those  interested  in  its  develop^ 
nuMit  liave  laii-e  capital  at  their  command;  expensive  exploring 
i\pediti(>ns  and  the  maintenance  of  many  stations  are  not  de- 
manded: and  much  wi^rk  is  done  by  private  prospectors.  In  British 
I'ast  Africa  on  the  contrary  the  whole  work  of  development  de- 
volved on  tbe  comj)any:  and  by  its  charter  it  was  even  prohibited 
fM>m  exercising  any  monopoly  of  trade.  Tt  is  probable  that  had 
tlie  fouiKJers  of  the  company,  with  Mackinnon  at  their  head,  not 
been  to  soiiie  extent  carried  away  by  a  patriotic  spirit,  they  would 
IK",  er  h.ave  cast  their  money  into  a  concern  out  of  which  tliey  could 
hardly  expect  to  receive  any  return  during  their  own  lifetime.  The 
founders  subscribed  about  $i,2(X).oon  among  them;  but  although 
i!;f  nominal  ca])it.al  was  ten  million  dollars,  the  actual  cajiital  at 
t!.e  CMmm.ind  of  the  company  never  amounted  even  to  two  and 
onc-balf  millions. 

After  it  ..btained  its  charter  the  company  lost  no  time  in  setting 
to  w  rk  tw  take  pMs>;cssion  of  its  fieUl,  to  establish  an  administration, 
ti'  sfivl  I  ait  ])i<»neer  expeditions,  to  lay  down  routes  to  the  interior, 
a:i!  to  el!iH,>c  positions  f(^r  stations.  The  tract  lying  between  the 
C' rist-line  allotted  to  the  company  and  tlie  great  lake,  which  was 
It-  •.  ai^Mic  b'  ttndary  in  the  interior,  was  known  onlv  in  a  very  gen- 
eral v.riy.  'I  lie  oast  had  been  to  some  extent  surveyed,  though  of 
t!;e  actual  \.d-,u'  "t  the  harbors  we  liad  no  very  precise  information. 
1 '.c  I  an;i  I\i\cr  was  known  in  a  general  way  up  to  a  certain  dis- 
!:.--cc.  but  i's  (■  'u-sc  was  very  inaccurately  laid  down.  Travelers 
i.-.'l  tr,'\erMd  the  cf.untry  from  the  coast  to  Kilimanjaro,  and 
!)  rthv.,ird  t  .  Mi.tiiu  Kenia.  Mucli  information  as  to  the  country 
•  ■  ''  p("  !'"'•  'a  1  I'edi  obtained  tlirough  the  Arabs  who  traded  with 
'•■■'•■  '    '■  ':;o\\ledge  ot'  tbe  interior  then  possessed  did  not 

u'lncrrial  undertakings;  and  it  was  feared  tliat 
'  -.  ■■'.  ith  tl)eir  \vrirlil<e  rei)utation,  would  be  a  great 
•    <■■  ■u:\t:[]]y\  operaliMns.       liut  the  company  went  to 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  185 

1888 

work  with  promptness  and  business-like  intelligence.  The  leading 
spirit  in  initiating  operations  on  the  spot  was  Mr.  George  S. 
Mackenzie,  who  had  already  had  great  experience  in  Persia  with 
populations  not  far  removed  from  the  type  to  be  met  with  in  East 
Africa ;  he  was  appointed  by  the  company  the  first  administrator, 
with  the  approval  of  the  home  government.  When  Mackenzie 
arrived  in  Zanzibar  in  October,  1888,  he  found  that  Burghash  had 
died,  and  that  his  brother  Khalifa  occupied  the  throne  of  the  sultan 
of  Zanzibar.  Khalifa  not  only  ratified  the  original  concession,  but 
by  another  document  granted  further  important  facilities  to  the 
company  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  privileges  which  had  been 
accorded  by  his  predecessor.  The  sultan  even  lent  the  services  of 
his  commander-in-chief.  General  Mathews,  to  enable  Mackenzie 
to  inaugurate  the  company  at  Mombasa,  the  ancient  Arabo-Portu- 
guese  port,  which  was  to  be  its  headquarters. 

At  this  time  the  German  section  of  East  Africa  broke  out  into 
open  rebellion.  Naturally  the  natives  in  the  British  sphere  were 
excited,  and  it  required  great  tact  and  care  in  order  to  avoid  a 
collision.  Unfortunately  also  the  excessive  anti-slavery  zeal  of 
the  missionaries  had  complicated  matters,  and  greatly  irritated  the 
Arab  population,  whose  friendliness  it  was  desirable  to  secure. 
^Mackenzie  had  a  trying  task  to  face;  many  domestic  slaves  had  fled 
from  their  masters  and  taken  refuge  with  the  missionaries,  who 
refused  to  deliver  them  up.  The  question  of  domestic  slavery  in 
Africa  is  a  difficult  one,  which  cannot  be  discussed  in  this  place. 
It  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  slave-raiding  and  slave- 
export.  It  is  a  universal  institution  in  Africa,  and  to  attempt 
suddenly  to  suppress  it  would  lead  to  anarchy  and  disorganization 
over  the  whole  continent.  It  is  an  institution  which  will  only  melt 
away  as  commerce,  enlightenment,  and  civilization  advance,  and 
for  the  missionaries  to  blindly  interfere  in  the  matter  is  to  defeat 
the  object  which  they  have  in  view.  Happily  the  administrator  was 
able  to  deal  with  the  particular  case  in  a  way  wliich  satisfied  all 
parties  except  those  who  are  fanatically  opposed  to  all  compromise. 
He  was  able  to  liberate  some  1400  slaves,  and  to  make  such  ar- 
rangements as  would  enable  any  slaves  within  the  British  sphere  to 
purchase  their  own  freedom  within  a  few  months.  This  ccuirse 
satisfied  Arabs,  natives,  and  missionaries  alike,  and  at  once  estab- 
lished the  reputation  of  the  company  for  fair  dealing. 

The  troubles  in  the  German  sphere  did  not  then  spread  to  that 


ISti  A  F  K  1  C  A 

1887-1890 

oi  I'.ni^l.inil.  MaokcriTiic  sot  ahoiit  iniproving:  Mombasa,  town  and 
harhor;  .'tii*  .'i'  I  lor  Majesty's  ships  siirvevod  the  latter.  Works 
wen-  hci:uu  whwh  s^rcatly  facilitated  iiavijLration ;  a  light  rail- 
way was  ct>ii>tnK-tcd  on  the  island,  and  suitable  buildings  were 
U-i-un  on  the-  mainland.  Mackenzie  visited  all  the  chief  ports 
and  mailo  arrans^omcnts  to  facilitate  the  company's  operations. 
C"arav;!n>>  were  at  once  sent  into  the  interior,  in  various  direc- 
tions, to  I 'pen  up  relations  with  the  natives,  to  obtain  a  better 
kn. 'wlet!.L:e  oi  llie  country,  and  to  ascertain  the  best  routes  to 
tlie  nuerior.  One  of  these  in  a  very  short  time  established 
st.itions  as  far  as  Machako's,  an  important  center  250  miles 
from  tlie  coast.  Another  proceeded  north  to  the  Tana  River  to 
ojK-n  uj)  relations  with  tiie  chiefs  in  that  part  of  the  territory,  and 
push  on  toward  Mount  Kenia.  These  two  caravans  did  excellent 
Work  in  e.\i)!(M-ation  ant!  in  establishing  the  company's  influence 
.iloiig  the  Tana  anil  eventually  as  far  as  Uganda.  Within  six 
inoi)!h>  after  .Mackenzie's  arrival  the  company's  officials  were  fairly 
e-talil:>!:e(l  in  the  territory,  and  the  active  work  of  opening  up  the 
eountry  was  well  hegun. 

It  was  not  only  in  the  CIcrman  sphere  to  the  south  of  the  com- 
jKuiy's  territories  that  the  company  was  threatened  with  difficulties 
HI  carrying  on  it-^  work.  The  position  of  CJcriuany  in  Witu  at  the 
niwuth  of  the  Tana  was  sliown  in  a  ijrevious  chapter;  and  it  was 
al-  ,  pointetl  out  that  this  jjiece  of  (icnnan  territory  was  utilized  by 
Dr.  IV-iers  as  a  stariing-])oint  from  which  to  hamper  the  company 
0:1  ti.c  iMrth  by  atlempling  to  obtain  concessions  w'hich  would  shut 
it  out  entirely  from  tlic  interior.  Shortly  after  the  company's  e.x- 
pediii'U-  \ve;r  miU  out  toward  tlie  \'ana  River  and  the  northwest, 
I'eter-  Muwe'icl  in  e\a<ling  the  liritish  \essels  which  were  block- 
.I'iir.^'"  tile  coa-t.  and  notwithstanding  the  disa])proval  of  the  German 
;;:t:,'  rif.t.-.  i;e  landed  in  Witu  and  organized  an  expedition  U])  the 
!\'.\er  '1  ,.'.ia.  I  lis  ostcn-iljle  purpose  was  to  reach  and  relieve  luuin 
r.i-;..'.,  \\i;o  ^\.;^  hclicwd  to  he  heiniued  in  hv  the  Mahdists  on  the 
i  lotr  Xiic;  Stanley  liad  -^et  out  l)v  way  of  the  Congo  for  his 
:a  -  lie  in  laiiuar)',  1  S'Sj.  i'ctcrs  and  the  coiupany's  expedition 
;  :a>ed  at  '.  ;'.-■  and-eek  with  each  other  for  some  time,  but  never 
•'■^■*-  1  '■'•■  '  n-rn  .-iji  adventurer  planted  the  tlag  of  his  country  along 
t  e  rr. er,  :■.:]■]  alter  iuaiier(aiN  fights  wiili  the  Masai  and  other  na- 
■  e'lc'i  !!i  reaclu'ng  I 'ganda  early  in  i.Sgo,  where 
■       n  MwauL^a  reigned,      'i'liere,  Catholic  and  I'rutes- 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA 


im 


1387-1890 

tant  missionaries  had  been  struggling  for  ascendency;  the  Moham- 
medan party  was  strong,  and  many  of  the  chiefs  and  people  adhered 
to  their  old  paganism.  Mwanga  was  nominally  an  adherent  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  though  in  reality  he  cared  only  for  the  party 
most  likely  to  keep  him  in  power.  The  Catholics,  more  zealous, 
and  perhaps  more  energetic,  than  the  Protestants,  had  gained  many 
followers  and  much  influence  in  the  country,  and  were  naturally 
inclined  to  favor  a  German  as  opposed  to  an  English  ascendency. 


When  Peters  arrived  in  Uganda  in  the  early  part  of  1890,  he  found 
no  difficulty  in  securing  a  friendly  reception  from  Mwanga;  he 
succeeded,  with  the  aid  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  in  inducing  the 
king  to  make  such  admissions  and  concessions  as  might  without 
difficulty  have  been  construed  into  a  treaty  of  protection.  It  may 
therefore  be  imagined  tliat  his  chagrin  was  great  when,  in  the 
autumn  of  1890,  liaving  sailed  from  Uganda  to  the  south  shore  of 
the  lake,  he  encfjuntcrcd  I'jnin  Paslia,  and  found  not  only  that 
the  pasha  was  "  rcHevcd/'  Ijut  that  the  British  and  German  Gov- 
ernments had  come  to  an  understanding  as  to  their  respective 
splieres  in  I'^ast  Africa,  whicli  rendered  all  his  efforts  to  extend 
(jcrman  infliiencf  of  no  a\'ail. 


188  Al'HlCA 

1890 

Bv  the  Aii.frlo-Gcrinan  ac^rccnient  of  July,  1890,  Germany 
rctircvl  coiuplctclv  from  tlio  north  of  the  line  cxtendine:  from  the 
I'lnlKi  to  the  east  shore  of  the  lake,  Icavinjj:  W'itu  anil  all  the  coast 
north  to  the  river  luh  (over  which  she  had  declared  a  protectorate) 
to  the  operations  i^i  tlie  I'.ritish  company.  The  line  of  delimitation 
was  then  carried  acri\ss  Victoria  Xyanza,  and  from  its  west  shore 
to  the  houndary  ^^i  the  Coni::*)  I'ree  State.  The  sphere  of  Great 
Britain  was  reci\i;ni/ed  in  this  ai;-reement  as  extending  along  the 
lub  River  and  far  away  to  the  sonrces  of  the  western  tributaries  of 
the  Nile;  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  were  regarded  as 
iiiulcr  Iiritisli  protection,  such  ])rotection  being  accepted  by  the 
^uItan.  These  islands  were  outside  of  the  company's  concession 
and  cliarter:  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  company  was  ex- 
jK'cted  t>>  operate  and  establish  British  influence  in  the  sphere 
all.  ttcd  to  Kngland  under  the  agreement  of  1890,  W'hich  virtually 
inchuled  a  large  section  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  whole  of  Uganda 
aiul  L'nyoro.  and  part  of  Karagwe,  Lake  Albert  and  part  of 
.Mbcrt  ICdward,  and  the  countries  on  their  shores,  as  well  as  the 
l'gyj)tian  K(iuatorial  Province,  and  part  of  Darfur  and  Kordofan. 
Of  course  this  enormous  sphere  must  be  regarded  as  to  some  extent 
i!ie  pr<  'duct  of  fancy. 

Sh'irtly  after  Peters  left  I'ganda  it  was  entered  on  behalf  of 
the  comj)any,  Ajiiil  14,  1890.  by  two  of  its  officials.  These  efficient 
j)i'iiieer<.  by  name  Jackson  and  Gedge,  had  made  their  way  from 
M'.nil.-'.-a  i;.:rthwcst  by  Macliako's,  tlirough  the  Alasai  country, 
and  cntLTfd  I'ganda  through  Usogo.  With  most  of  the  chiefs  on 
i'.e;r  rinUe  they  had  little  difhcultv  in  coming  to  terms,  and  in- 
diunig  tr.cni  to  accei)t  the  coni]xiny's  flag.  Owing  to  the  represen- 
tat!-'n>  n;a(ic  by  the  French  Government  when  the  Emin  relief 
i-xpcditj.  n  \\,-'>  organized,  setting  forth  the  danger  that  nn"ght  befall 
;'::(.ir  nM->:..n  if  Stanley  sought  to  enter  Uganda  (it  being  stated 
;:..i'.  lu-  cx|)r<htii  in  nu'glit  l)e  \  iewed  as  a  ])unitive  one  to  avenge  the 
''''■■'''''<-■  "I  "lie  Pi-liop  I  fannington),  Jackson's  expedition  when 
"  ^;  •!'"■'  !i  'Ui  tlie  ciiast  v.as  si)ecially  instructed  ;/(*/  to  enter 
^  -  '   '■    l;d  <()  iiiily  on  the  ap])eal  of  the  king  and  the  nn's- 

Catliolic  and  I'rotestant  alike,  to  help  them 
liammedan  jjarty.  Jackson  actually  declined 
itatiM]),  and  ]{  uas  only  after  the  strongest  pres- 
i   the  king,  the  inissi(jnaries,  and  the  chiefs,  and 


ina: 
M 


.iV 


c[.t;.:.'c  by  M.vani^a  of  the  ctjinpany's  llag,  that  he  decided 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  ISS 

1890-1891 

to  enter  the  country.  When  Peters  heard  of  Jackson's  approach 
he  was  greatly  irritated,  and  beat  a  precipitate  retreat  to  the  south 
end  of  the  lake,  notwithstanding  Jackson's  request  by  letter  that 
he  would  await  the  arrival  of  the  company's  expedition. 

The  reports  by  these  early  expeditions  were  of  great  service  in 
showing  the  advantages  and  difficulties  of  the  country  through 
which  they  passed.  They  confirmed  the  statements  of  previous 
explorers  that,  while  there  were  great  stretches  along  the  m.agnifi- 
cent  plateau  country  of  Lykipia  and  in  Usogo  suitable  for  industrial 
development  and  for  the  settlement  of  Indian  and  Persian  colonists, 
the  region  nearer  the  coast  suffered  greatly  from  want  of  water. 
Much  of  the  country  was  well  adapted  for  cattle  and  agriculture : 
some  of  the  natural  products  might  be  turned  to  account,  and  of 
course  a  certain  amount  of  ivory  was  obtainable.  Stations  were 
established  at  intervals,  partly  as  trading  centers  and  partly  as 
stages  for  the  caravans  which  were  to  be  sent  for  traffic  and  ex- 
ploration into  the  interior. 

The  great  problem  forced  upon  the  company  was  that  of  com- 
munications. It  was  evident  that  so  long  as  the  only  means  of 
transport  was  the  African  native,  commerce  could  not  advance  be- 
yond the  lowest  stage.  Camels,  donkeys,  and  mules  were  experi- 
mented with,  but  all  of  them  demand  practicable  roads  and  an 
adequate  supply  of  water  and  food.  Everything  seemed  to  point 
to  the  desirability  of  constructing  a  light  railway  from  the  coast  to 
the  lake,  a  distance  of  some  500  miles.  For  more  than  half  this 
distance  the  ground  was  so  level  as  to  render  construction  ex- 
tremely easy.  Beyond  that  was  the  enormous  Man  escarpment, 
making  a  descent  and  corresponding  ascent  of  some  3000  or  4000 
feet,  but  rei)orted  as  presenting  no  difficulty  to  the  engineer.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  though  the  first  mention  of  the  company  in  the 
official  correspondence  between  England  and  Germany  was  in 
connection  with  a  railway,  the  company  declared  its  resources 
unequal  to  more  than  a  few  miles  of  tramway  beyond  Mombasa. 
The  Act  of  the  Brussels  Congress  of  189 1  afforded  the  company  a 
lever  wherewith  to  move  the  government  in  the  matter,  for  it  im- 
posed upon  the  governments  which  signed  it  the  obligation  of 
taking  effective  means,  among  other  things,  of  suppressing  slave- 
raiding  and  slave-export.  With  respect  to  British  Ivast  Africa,  it 
was  represented  that  the  most  effective  means  was  the  construction 
of  a  railway  from  the  coast  to  the  lake,  which  would  render  pack- 


190  AFRICA 

'*'"  1890-1891 

animals  unpr.Mua!)!c  and  iitincccssary.  The  result  was  that  Lord 
S.i!i>l>urv's  ^'.ncnuiiont  tiiadc  a  grant  of  $100,000  in  1891  for  a 
railwav  sur\cv,  tlio  c.'nipany  to  pay  any  expenses  incurred  in  excess 
of  iliat  siini.  I'luliT  an  experienced  Indian  engineer  officer,  Cap- 
tain Ma^vl.  iiald.  t!io  survey  expedition  did  excellent  work.  It 
traced  a  jiracticahlc  route  at  moderate  cost  as  far  as  the  lake,  and 
:^<l\cd  grcatlv  to  our  knowledge  of  the  country  in  its  vicinity.  It 
was  mi.Ier-to. ul  that  tlie  grant  for  the  survey  was  to  be  followed 
I'V  a  i^rant  for  the  railway,  and  a  grant  at  the  rate  of  three  per  cent. 
.Ml  a  ti\cd  <\uu  I'or  the  construction  of  such  a  railway  was  agreed 
t!IK>n.  .\s  r..:,;.;Iit  have  been  expected,  the  construction  of  a  railway 
.it  imperial  expense  wris  strongly  objected  to  in  several  quarters, 
on  thi-  gr'Uind  mainly  that  it  was  the  company's  business,  and  en- 
tirely for  its  heiielit.  Political  events  at  home,  however,  led,  as 
will  be  steii.  t<i  a  ccTtain  change  of  policy  in  h'ast  Africa;  the  rail- 
wav  is  >tiil  incomplete.  Nile  steamers  now  run  from  Khartum  to 
(icndok-T...      Ihit  let  us  return  to  Uganda. 

\\]\cu  Jack-on  and  Gedge  entered  the  country  they  found  it 
in  a  state  h'-inlcring  (Mi  anarchy  under  the  weak  and  cruel  Mwanga. 
("athoiic-^.  I'lctoiants,  and  Moliaiumedans  were  plotting  and  coun- 
ttr-plotting:  Mwanga  was  found  to  be  ahuost  entirely  in  the  power 
<<i  the  "  Ircnch  jiarty."  as  the  Catholic  missionaries  called  them- 
-clvc-'.  .au'l  they  were  openly  inimical  to  British  domination.  Event- 
u.i!i\  Iarks(,n  returned  from  the  iiUerior  in  the  summer  of  the  same 
year  v.  itli  en-.oy^  from  the  chiefs  of  Uganda  and  Usogo,  who  came 
t«  -ee  f"r  tlieni-elves  whether  the  I'aiglish  were  sui)reme  at  the 
C'Livt.  Meanwhile  Cedgc  was  reduced  to  despair  by  the  conduct 
"f  Mw.mga  au'l  his  party,  and.  retiring  to  the  south  shore  of  the 
lake,  conn-elcd  on  at  least  temporary  ab.andonment  of  Uganda. 

\\':i!e  at  the  soutli  end  of  the  lake  dedge  learned  that  Emin 
Pa-ha  wa>  at  r.ukumhi.  tlie  iM-ench  mission  station,  with  a  large 
f'  T-( '•.  ,•;;  ?.'.v.','  f>  r  Uganda.  A  letter  from  Emin  informed  him 
tk;'  '  r  !:■.<!  l\'er-">  treaty  in  his  possession,  and  was  proceeding  to 
U-.iii  !.•.  "a-  !e;ire-enta:i\e  of  Ilis  Maje-^ty  the  hani)eror  of  Ger- 
n:a!;y*>  ( "' .naiii--!!  )iKr  f^  .r  l\ast  Africa,  t(;  watch  over  any  infringe- 
•:.r;/.  .  !  I'-'c  ':.]<[  treaty. ""  Xine  days  later,  on  Oct<jber  1  i,  the  pasha 
k -'i  to  i!,!..-!;i  (le<!ge  <'f  tlic  Conclusion  of  the  Anglo-German 
a-j-e'-rr.cn!  jr.ly  i,  iN'';o,  which  definitely  assigned  Uganda  to  the 
1':  '■'.'.''      pkt  ;■(•  .  .f  i!,rlui"ua'. 

i"  •■  ■'   ■    <-■  '    ■    '•■on  (,f  ilic  July  agreement    public  r>pinion  in 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  Idl 

1890 

England  became  greatly  excited  over  Uganda.  Partly  owing  to 
the  efforts  of  the  Germans  to  get  hold  of  it,  partly  to  the  critical 
position  of  British  missionaries,  and  the  danger  of  the  triumph  of 
the  "  French  "  party,  partly  to  the  strong  representations  made  by 
Stanley  on  his  return  from  the  Emin  Pasha  expedition  as  to  the 
great  industrial  and  strategical  value  of  the  country,  partly  to  a 
feeling  that  no  other  power  but  England  should  have  control  of 
the  Nile  sources,  the  country  was  almost  unanimous  in  urging  the 
company  to  press  forward  and  take  possession  of  Uganda.  The 
British  agent  and  consul-general  at  Zanzibar,  Sir  C.  Euan  Smith, 
telegraphed  on  February  15,  1890,  strongly  recommending,  as  soon 
as  possible,  the  dispatch  of  a  thoroughly  equipped  expedition  to 
Uganda ;  the  cost,  though  heavy,  would  be  partly  recovered ;  any 
delay  would  enable  the  Arabs  to  recover  their  position.  In  the 
following  month  Sir  William  Mackinnon  was  advised  by  the  For- 
eign Office  of  the  dispatch  of  tvv^o  envoys  to  the  court  of  King 
Mwanga,  by  whom  the  British  Government  intended  to  send  back 
presents  to  the  king.  It  was  intimated  that  "  the  cultivation  of  a 
cordial  understanding  with  the  King  of  Uganda  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  future  interests  and  prosperity  of  the  Imperial 
British  East  Africa  Company."  A  further  communication  from 
the  Foreign  Office  on  April  2  took  for  granted  that  "  the  principal 
object  which  the  East  Africa  Company  has  in  view,  after  establish- 
ing its  position  on  the  coast,  is  to  secure  permanent  influence  in 
Uganda,  and  that  steps  have  been  taken  for  that  object  by  the  dis- 
patch of  caravans."  It  was  asked  what  these  steps  were,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  communicated  to  the  agent  "  in  anticipation  of 
the  arrival  at  Zanzibar  of  a  mission  from  Uganda,  said  to  be  now 
on  its  way  to  the  coast."  It  is  only  fair  to  the  company,  in  view 
of  subsequent  events,  to  give  these  details,  and  to  point  out  that  it 
would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  place  upon  the  charter  the  construc- 
tion embodied  in  tliis  last  communication.  Under  the  circum- 
stances it  was  practically  impossible  for  the  company  to  hold  back 
from  Uganda.  It  was  universally  regarded  as  the  agent  of  the 
government,  and  tlierc  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  directors  cherished 
the  belief  that  suppfM-t  in  some  form  would  be  accorded  to  this 
great  and  expensive  enterprise,  an  enterprise  to  which  the  com- 
pany's own  means  were  inadequate.  Looking  back  to  the  many 
articles  which  ap|)carcd  in  the  press  at  the  time,  it  is  evider.t  that 
the  belief  was  shared  by  the  British  public.      No  doubt  the  company 


ii)o  A  F  K  1  C  A 

' ''"'  1890 

hopol  that  it  w.'uKl  rcMp  siMiie  return  for  its  outlay  in  a  great  in- 
t  ttMso  \u  Its  tradms;  opcratiDns.  and  it  had  sonic  g^rounds  for  bc- 
lic-\  iMu'  ili.it  a  railway  In-ni  tiic  a)ast  to  llic  lake  would  be  con- 
-tnutod  uM.lii-  the  Linaraiitcc  of  tlie  I^ritish  (lovernnient.  Hut 
f\c:i  wluii  all  t':ii>  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  must  be  admitted 
li.id  tlie  imperial  sentiment  unt  been  to  some  extent  mingled  with 
jinrely  c.  luuKicial  iciisiderations.  the  company,  with  the  means  at 
its  command,  nn^dii  have  hesitated  to  lake  a  step  so  full  of  risk  and 
iiu  Kini;  >"  i.M\i;e  an  outlay.  By  whatever  motive  the  directors 
were  ;ufaate(I.  thev  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  and 
the  lejiroentations  of  the  ^^overnment.  At  the  same  time,  it  must 
be  pointed  out,  that  the  latter  did  not  in  so  many  words  commit 
:tnif  to  lend  the  ev>!nj)any  substantial  support,  or  indemnify  it  for 
..iiv  outlav  in  safe^uardin.^"  imj)erial  interests. 

r.ut  tlie  stron.i^  man  whom  the  situation  recpiircd  was  already 
at  iiaiid.  Captain  V.  D.  Lu^ard,  who  had  previously  shown  his 
aptitude  for  dealiui^-  with  refractory  Arabs  and  native  chiefs  in 
Xyasaland.  entered  the  service  of  the  company  early  in  1890.  lie 
};a<!  si'.own  his  capacity  for  ori^anization,  and  his  high  quality  as  a 
l)!oncer  explorer  in  the  exj)edition  which  he  conducted  from  Mom- 
basa to  Macliako's  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  East  Africa.  He 
was  (jrdered  to  jirocecd  to  Uganda,  with  the  small  force  at  his 
Command,  to  carry  out  the  forward  policy  which  the  company  had 
re.-"KLti  to  adopt  in  deference  to  the  pressure  Ijrought  to  bear 
r.p'  n  it.  and  to  which  at  tlic  time  it  was  not  unwilling  to  yield. 
S..!-liers,  porters,  and  camp-followers,  all  luld.  T.ugard  had  only 
.^H)  mi-n  at  his  command.  With  these  he  made  forced  marches 
tr.  !i;  Kikuyo,  a;;,l  on  December  18,  1890,  he  entered  Mengo.  the 
'ajiital  "i  r-and,-i.  much  to  the  surprise  of  Alwanga  and  all  his 
i!:iei-.  Wiiliin  a  few  days  after  his  arrival,  with  Cromwellian 
'!et:-;o!i  a;;. I  (ktcnnination,  he  induced  Mwanga  to  sign  a  treaty 
aikn  ,\\ '.(.■■ '.•^::i:^r  ihe  supremacy  of  the  company,  but  only  for  two 
yrar-.  .\!v,  aiiga  dcrlared  that  if  a  greater  white  man  than  Lugard 
an:-. id.  ;ic  ^i;  .-j-l  tran>fer  his  allegiance;  evidently  his  mind  had 
1  « en  •,;-.-e::'(,d  by  I'cters.  Lugard  and  his  two  or  three  white 
'"''''!'•■•-  :i^  h;:.i  a  trying  part  to  play.  They  established  their 
'■••'•i'  •''  •'  (■'  nin:anding  ))o>ition,  and  proceeded  quietly  and  un- 
o^nntaiioudy  to  fortify  it;  they  had  the  advantage  of  a  Maxim 
•''"'■  ''<■'•■  '"od  .It  hr-t  in  c.  nstant  apprehension  of  attack;  but  in 
■   "'      •■  i     >  ed  I.    admit   tliat  the  I'.ritish  officer  was  his 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  193 

1890-1891 

best  friend.  Lugard  gave  it  to  be  clearly  understood  that  he  would 
favor  neither  one  party  nor  the  other,  but  that  he  would  maintain 
the  authority  of  the  British  company  against  all  parties.  His 
perfect  fairness  was  in  time  recognized ;  and  the  effectiveness  of  his 
measures  to  abolish  anarchy  and  establish  trade  and  peace  was 
so  evident  that  both  Catholics  and  Protestants  were  compelled  to 
admit  it.  This  state  of  feeling  was  no  doubt  in  part  induced  by 
the  fact  that  the  Mohammedans  were  hovering  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  country,  ready  to  rush  in  and  take  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
among  the  Christians. 

By  the  spring  of  1891  the  English  position  was  so  strong  that 
Lugard  felt  at  liberty  to  leave  Uganda  in  charge  of  one  of  his 
officers,  Captain  Williams,  and  undertake  a  pioneer  journey  to  the 
westward.  But  the  position  of  the  Mohammedans  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  country  was  so  menacing  that  he  felt  it  desirable  first  of  all  to 
deal  with  them.  He  did  not  consider  it  advisable  to  take  any  direct 
part  in  the  conflict  himself,  but  under  his  guidance  both  Christian 
parties  united,  and  their  forces  were  so  well  organized  that  the 
iMohammedans  were  completely  routed  on  May  7.  This  naturally 
greatly  increased  Lugard's  influence,  and  he  was  able  without  re- 
turning to  Mengo  to  set  out  on  an  expedition  to  the  west  shores  of 
the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  westward  to  Lake  Albert  Edward  and 
]\Iount  Ruwenzori.  He  had  no  difficulty  anywhere  in  winning 
the  confidence  of  the  chiefs  and  natives,  and  in  inducing  them  to 
accept  the  authority  of  the  company.  He  was  able  to  form  a  com- 
paratively high  opinion  of  the  country  and  of  its  suitability  for 
industrial  development  under  a  stable  administration.  At  Lake 
Albert  Edward  he  discovered  some  valuable  salt  mines,  and  erected 
a  fort  to  guard  them.  On  the  slopes  of  Mount  Ruwenzori  he  built 
another  fort,  and  proceeded  northward  to  Lake  Albert.  Here  at 
Kavalli's  he  found  some  thousands  of  Emin  Pasha's  followers  who 
had  been  left  behind  by  Stanley  when  the  explorer  proceeded  to 
the  coast  with  Emin,  and  were  evidently  living  in  comfort  and 
peace.  Lugard  had  little  difficulty  in  inducing  Emin's  old  follow- 
ers to  go  with  him ;  and  many  of  them  took  service  in  Uganda 
under  the  company.  He  succeeded  in  defeating  the  notorious 
Kaba  Rega,  King  of  Unyoro,  and  erected  a  number  of  forts  to 
secure  the  footing  he  had  gained  in  this  interesting  region.  Lugard 
found  that  Emin  had  preceded  him  at  Ruwenzori  and  on  Lake 
All^ert ;  but  the   paslia  coulfl   not   induce  his   former  followers   to 


y)i  AFRICA 

1891-1892 

tlir.'w  in  \hc':-:  lot  with  liim  ami  the  Germans.  When  in  the  end 
of  iS«)i  l.uijard  rotiunod  to  I'l^'anda,  he  had  firmly  laid  the  founda- 
ti(Mi  cf  r.rit'Mi  sn]M(.in:icv  in  all  the  rej^ion  hctween  Lake  Victoria 
on  the  tMir  •<i<!o  ;ind  I.ak(.-s  Alhcrt  and  Alhcrt  Kdward  on  tlie  other. 
He  had  rid  ihc  n'Lrion  fn-m  the  c-rnelty  and  oppression  of  Kaba 
Kci^a's  d.niinatinn.  and  established  confidence  among-  the  natives, 
and  Ii'va.ltv  t«>  the  nanio  of  baigland.  Nothing  was  wanted  bnt  that 
t!u-  i:arri>-ons  in  the  t'. uts  slmuld  be  strengthened,  and  I.ngard's 
pilicy  c^Mtiinicd.  in  order  to  render  this  region  a  center  of  civiliza- 
ti»Mi  for  all  Central  Africa. 

W'luii.  i^n  Dtremher  31,  t8oi.  the  captain  retnrned  to  Uganda, 
lie  t''  uiid  the  comlitit^n  of  things  not  so  favorable  as  when  he  had 
left.  Tlicre  had  been  incessant  intrigncs  on  the  part  of  the  Catholic 
or  Freiic!i  partv:  the  IVotcstants  had  not  been  so  discreet  as  they 
might  lia\o  l)ccn:  wln'le  tlie  weak  and  inconstant  Mwanga  had  been 
induced  t'l  try  to  free  himself  from  his  allegiance  to  the  company. 
It  has  been  clearlv  proved  that  the  iMTnch  missionaries  had  been 
imp'Tting  arm.s  and  ammunition  :  some  French  ]M'iests  arrived  from 
Iviir  pc  on  Jannarv  J  J,  IcSqj.  and  the  bisliop  had  gone  out  to  meet 
tl-.em.  and  retnrned  with  tlicm.  With  them  came  tlie  information 
th.it  tile  C'tinpanv  had  intimated  its  intention  of  withdrawing  from 
I'ganda.  failing  an\-  support  frcMn  the  go\-crnment.  The  I'rcnch 
Were  in  many  uays  the  stronger  party,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  b:<h''p.  witli  a  certaintv  of  success,  resolved  to  trv  conclusions 
\\\\]]  ::ie  Prute-^tants.  British  supremacv  was  at  stake,  and  Ca])tain 
Lu-ard  pronij):])-  distributed  wliat  arms  he  could  spare  to  the  weak 
but  l-yal  I'ri'te-tants.  At  the  same  time  he  begged  the  bishop  to 
e:!dea\"r  t"  re-train  liis  co-religionists,  but  witliout  success.  A 
tr;::;:ig  ir.cidcnt  in  the  llazaar  seems  to  have  led  to  what  was 
v::tnilly  aii  allaek  <if  the  CatliMlic  npoti  tlie  Protestant  party 
on  l.an-.-ary  j.}.  |S()_'.  Lugard  felt  bound  in  the  interests  of  the  com- 
]>■'■'•}'  ■'-'''  "!  l-.TLi'a.iid  lo  e-pouse  the  cause  of  the  latter.  Many 
re;-!-;-  rrarlif]  i-ji-land  in  the  earlv  half  of  iSfjj  as  to  the  "cruel- 
tie-  e  ■.i.-ii-t.d  by  l.ii-ard  and  his  partv  against  the  Catholics;  Init 
a:i  exaiii/iati'.n  -f  .ill  ilie  facts  proved'  that  he  acted  with  justice 
aii'I  WW]  :••■•■  :C.::y.  v.  liile  iiia-nlaining  the  su])remacy  of  the  comi)any 
as  rej.re-e::*;!:'^-  Creat  Ihiia.ni.  King  Mwanga  and  many  of  the 
'^■' '•'<■  i'V  :!:■•'•:.!  (at;>.lics  tk'd ;  others  were  succured  In'  T>ngard 
^■■''■~v:i.  Lfi-re  {]]<■  latier  returned  to  haiglaiid  in  the  autumn  of 
•"■'    ■■  '  '■     '■'  ■  '' ■'■  ^;l   re  rc-tored  peace;  the  Catholics  were  settled 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  195 

1891-1892 

on  the  northwest  of  Lake  Victoria,  the  Protestants  in  Uganda,  and 
the  Mohammedans  in  a  province  of  their  own.  King  Mwanga  was 
restored,  a  new  treaty  was  concluded  in  March  and  Uganda  made 
over  in  perpetuity  to  British  protection. 

Meanwhile  the  directors  of  the  company  in  England  had  be- 
come somewhat  appalled  at  the  vast  responsibility  thus  forced  upon 
them.  Their  comparatively  insignificant  capital  of  two  and  a  half 
million  dollars  could  not  maintain  the  administration  of  a  million 
of  square  miles;  and  in  the  absence  of  powers  to  raise  taxes  they 
did  not  consider  themselves  justified  in  spending  the  money  of  the 
shareholders  on  enterprises  so  far  distant  from  their  base  of  opera- 
tions. In  August,  1 89 1,  after  its  hopes  that  the  government  would 
sanction  a  subsidy  for  a  railway  were  defeated,  the  company  gave 
it  to  be  understood  that  it  would  be  compelled  to  withdraw  from 
Uganda.  At  this  the  missionary  public  took  alarm,  and  subscribed 
a  very  considerable  sum  of  money  to  enable  the  company  to  main- 
tain Lugard  at  his  post  for  a  time ;  but  the  company  undertook  only 
to  hold  on  there  till  the  end  of  1892.  When  the  news  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  Uganda  reached  England  there  was  an  outcry  against  the 
company  for  threatening  to  abandon  the  country  under  such  con- 
ditions, leaving  the  Protestants  at  the  mercy  of  the  Catholics — 
moreover,  it  was  said  it  was  in  the  hope  that  the  company  would 
remain  in  Uganda  and  extend  its  operations  that  Lord  Salisbury 
had  asked  the  House  of  Commons  to  incur  the  expense  of  a  survey 
for  a  railway.  With  this,  however,  the  company  maintained  it  had 
nothing  to  do ;  the  railway  was  the  affair  of  tlie  government,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  construct  it,  in  order,  by  so  doing,  to  carry  out  the 
obligations  undertaken  by  Great  Britain  as  a  signatory  of  the  act 
of  the  Brussels  Conference.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  original  in- 
tention of  Lord  Salisbury  to  obtain  a  vote  for  the  construction  of 
a  railway  was  departed  from,  and  Parliament  was  merely  asked  to 
vote  money  for  a  preliminary  survey.  Tlie  company  by  tliis  time 
had  spent  all  but  abDut  $r, 000,000  of  its  ca[)ital.  It  became  evident 
that  with  this  not  much  could  be  done  to  meet  the  expenses  which 
would  be  absolutely  necessary  to  continue  the  occupation  of 
Uganda  and  maintain  the  position  secured  by  Lugard  to  the  west- 
ward. Besides,  the  company  was  primarily  a  trading  organization ; 
the  power  to  raise  taxes,  though  ])romised  by  the  imperial  govern- 
ment, was  still  witliheld ;  and  the  revenue  from  customs  did  not 
amount  to  much,     llie  crisis  in  the  company's  affairs,  and  in  the 


196  AFRICA 

1892-1893 

(Kcnpation  of  the  ininicnsc  s|)licrc  allotted  to  England  by  the  Anglo- 
(u-rnun  and  Atii;!.'- Italian  a.ijrccnicnts.  was  reached  in  the  summer 
of  i8«>j.  when  l..-rd  Salisbury's  j^ovcrnment  was  succeeded  by  that 
t>f  Ciladstone.  A  C'abinet  Gnmcil  was  held  in  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  on  tlic  i,o{h  a  letter  from  the  Foreij^^n  Office  was  sent 
to  the  coinpaiiv  acccptins;  "  the  principle  of  evacuation,"  but  offer- 
in,i,'  a>;>istaiicc  to  tlie  company  to  prolong-  the  occupation  to  the  end 
of  March.   iS<);v 

T'p.c  attempt  to  make  the  abandonment  of  Uganda  a  party 
qucsti.'ii  f.iik'd;  for  it  was  seen  that  "abandonment"  of  all  that 
had  been  gained  in  b'.ast  Africa,  and  not  temporary  retirement,  was 
what  certain  extreme  i)artisans  had  in  view.  There  were  so  many 
and  \aried  interests  at  stake  that  public  opinion  ranged  itself  very 
emj)l:aticallv  against  abandonment.  Lugard,  who  returned  to  Eng- 
land .it  the  critical  moment,  addressed  crowded  audiences  all  over 
the  C"nntry.  and  >o  intensified  jjublic  opinion  on  behalf  of  retention 
tliat  t!ie  g"vennnent  became  convinced  that  even  temporary  evacu- 
ati-  II  UMiild  not  be  tolerated.  Ilai^pily  their  communication  to  the 
C"m]Mnv  was  so  ingeniously  wf)rdcd  that  it  afforded  them  a  loop- 
hole for  e>cape ;  "abandonment."  we  are  assured,  was  never  in 
their  tln-ughts.  The  simj)le  and  obvious  coiu'se  would  have  bccii 
to  send  Lugard  back  as  soon  as  j)ossiblc  to  continue  his  beneficent 
wi-rk  either  directly  under  the  im])crial  government  or  through  the 
agency  of  t!ie  c<  nipany.  This,  howexcr,  it  was  felt,  would  be  too 
sn<l<Ien  a  riglit-aboiit-facc  for  certain  innuential  members  of  the 
C'abi:!et :  mi  that,  in  deference  to  them,  a  middle  course  was  adopted, 
("ajitain  >dacil  .n.-ild,  wIm  had  gone  out  to  surxey  the  railway  route 
ffi  in  the  cea^L  to  the  lake,  was  ordered,  while  on  his  way  to  the 
(■".'t-t.  iw  return  to  I'ganda.  and  rej)ort  on  tlic  e\'cnls  connected  with 
t!ie  ci'.i!  war  tlieiw  I'.nt  this  was  not  enough;  it  was  resohx'd  also 
t'>  -ei-id  a  (■"ninii--;on  t<i  I'ganda  to  inquire  into  the  position  and  to 
li'.r:i>h  nii' •rmati'ii  lo  ;he  goNernment  to  enable  theiu  to  decide  as 
t'.  t:;e  c  ,;:r-c  \'>  be  i;]tiniate!y  adopted.  The  most  reasonable  scc- 
^■''"  '  '  '^-if  '  abiu't  w. lilted  to  act  tlirough  tlic  company,  which  had 
a'l  it^  ni.M-iwury  ' 'ii  the  s]),,t;  l,iit  liie  ruling  s])irit  in  the  Cabinet 
"■••"■•■d  !'■  t  r. i!i  l!Mc:i  1,,  <uc]\  a  p'n.pMsal.  Sir  flerald  Portal,  the 
'■  "^  '  '' :.'r  (i^tMix,-  at  Zaii/ibar,  w.is  ap])r)inted  as  c  imnn'ssioner 
■'■  ■■  ■  '  '■  lii~t  iiKai!--  <if  dcahng  with  the  counlr\-,  whctlier 
■•■'''-'■'  ^•!"/;li-!r  '.I-  I  .r:'cr\'.  i-c."  and  witli  liim  were  associated 
''  '  '■'   ■■''''   ■'  ''■/(•!!   !'.;iii-li  otriccrs  and  other   haiglishmen  expcri- 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  197 

1893 

enced  in  East  African  affairs.  The  expedition,  accompanied  by  200 
of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar's  soldiers  and  an  army  of  porters,  left 
the  coast  early  in  January,  1893.  ^'^^  ^^"^^  Englishmen  in  Uganda 
who  were  holding  the  position  on  behalf  of  the  company  and  of 
their  country  were  notified  by  the  speediest  possible  means  of  what 
had  taken  place,  so  that  when  Portal  and  his  expedition  arrived  all 
was  undisturbed.  Portal  arrived  in  Uganda  on  March  17,  1893, 
and  on  the  31st  of  the  month  the  company's  flag  was  hauled  dow'n 
from  Kampala,  and  the  Union  Jack  raised  in  its  place.  The  com- 
missioner spent  two  months  in  the  country  investigating  matters 
and  trying  to  readjust  the  relations  between  the  different  parties, 
mainly  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  Catholics  for  the  treatment  they 
complained  of  receiving  from  the  British  officials. 

Portal  found  that  in  reality  the  three  so-called  religious 
parties.  Catholics,  Protestants,  and  Mohammedans,  were  hostile 
political  factions,  ready  at  any  moment  to  fly  at  each  other's  throats. 
By  the  arrangement  which  Lugard  had  made  the  country  was  so 
divided  between  the  parties  that  each  was  confined  to  a  sphere  of  its 
ow^n.  Portal  modified  this  arrangement  so  far  as  to  give  to  the 
French  or  Catholic  party  territory  taken  from  the  Mohammedan 
sphere.  This  irritated  tlie  Mohammedans,  w'hose  remonstrances 
were  interpreted  by  Captain  Macdonald,  who  had  been  left  in 
charge  by  Portal  on  his  return  to  the  coast,  as  a  threat  of  rebel- 
lion. The  consequence  was  that  in  the  summer  of  1893  the 
Mohammedans  were  attacked  by  the  combined  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  large  numl)ers  driven  from  the  country,  and  the 
rest  fcjrced  to  remain  (juietly  in  one  of  the  districts  assigned  to  them 
by  Lugard.  The  result  has  Ijeen  mainly  to  the  advantage  of  the 
Catholic  party.  In  addition  to  the  districts  assigned  to  the 
Catholics  for  occupation,  they  were  allotted  exclusive  rights  for 
their  missionary  operations  over  the  whole  country  between  Buddu 
and  Lake  Albert  Edward  as  well  as  Soutliern  Unyoro  up  to  the 
shores  of  Lake  Alljcrt.  Tlic  Protestant  operations  were  confined 
to  Northern  Uganda  and  tlic  country  of  L'soga  on  the  east.  When 
it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  Catholics  regard  themselves  as  the  rep- 
resentatives of  iM-ancc,  the  \vi>(l()m  of  tliis  arrangement  is  doubtful, 
in  view  of  the  operations  of  the  iM-ench  in  the  region  to  the  west 
of  tlie  Upper  Nile. 

Under  date  May  29.  1893,  Portal  made  a  fresh  treaty  with 
King  Mwanga,  by  wln'ch  Uganda  virtually  became  a  protectorate 


lOS  AFRICA 

1893-1894 

t.f  C.rt.i!  r.ritaiii.  Wlicii  he  took  his  departure  from  Uj:!;-ancla  lie 
left  bchiihl  him  Mvcral  British  (>nR-crs  tmdcr  Mac(l(Miakl,  the  actiiijj^ 
adm!m!>ti.it»'r.  Amonj;  those  were  Major  Owen,  who  was  sent 
\vc>!  to  Kikc  All)ert  I-ithvard  to  witluh-aw  the  ij^arrisons  from  the 
two  remotest  forts  estahhshed  hy  Liii^ard.  a  procee(hnj;-  for  which 
it  would  he  dilVkuh  to  lind  any  adc(|nate  reason.  To  make  amentls 
for  the  aI)andoiimc"nt  of  the  strongholds  farther  south  a  series  of 
forts  was  erected  hctwccn  Lake  Alhcrt  and  the  Kafn  River,  the 
h'Uiularv  y<i  L'nvorc*.  with  the  intention  of  preventini;-  any  further 
:ncin>ions  s.  nthward  hy  Kahha  ]\ei,^a  of  Unyoro.  Early  in  1894 
M.ii  T  Owen,  acting-  muler  instructions,  for  the  protection  of 
r.nti^h  interots  in  the  Nile  \alley,  made  his  way  down  the  Nile  as 
f.ir  .-s  \\  aik'l.ii.  where  he  pkmted  the  British  llag".  By  these  and 
oti-.ci-  mea-uies  the  '^om]  work  he^ani  hy  Captain  Lugard  was  in  a 
mea>-in"e  continued  and  contiinicd;  for  althoui^h,  to  save  appear- 
ance<.  I'^ital  Considered  it  acKisahIc  to  make  a  few  mixlihcations 
in  ]]]>  arrani^'euienls.  the  \irtual  result  of  his  mission  was  to  con- 
firir,  tile  ln\;li  ojiinioii  formed  hv  impartial  judges  of  the  ahility, 
tact,  and  hunianiiy  with  which  that  olTicer  had  carried  out  his  most 
trying,'"  mission  to  L't^anda. 

As  the  result  of  J^»rta^s  missi(^n  the  British  Government  was 
Compelled  to  Come  to  a  detinite  decisicjn  with  reference  to  Uj^anda 
and  tile  w  hi '1^  ret,n"on  hetween  that  and  the  coast.  The  ahandon- 
nienl  of  L"L;an<la  had  ceased  to  he  a  practical  (juestion,  if  indeed  it 
w.'.s  e\er  >erMu>ly  contemplated  excejjt  by  a  few  extreme  i)oliticians 
■..  Ki.i-  \ie\\--  on  imperial  (juestions  find  hut  slender  support  in  the 
C'';uiiry.  Lord  I'l.schery  as  horeit^ni  Minister,  and  later  as  Prime 
M'lr.-ter.  liad  a  dilin-nlt  |)arl  to  j)lay.  It  is  recojniized  that  had  he 
Ix-en  ivi-i:  to  ii'l!..\\  his  own  inclinations  there  ccnild  have  been  no 
•  '.■'uht  that  he.  lila-  Lord  Sali>bury,  would  have  j)rocceded  not  only 
t  '  1  ccnpy  l'Lran<!a.  but  to  secure  against  the  ai;"i,n-essi(jns  of  France 
:.nd  the  Coii-c  l-"rec  Slate  the  whcde  of  the  sjihcre  accorded  to 
iiriti.di  intliK-nce  by  llie  .Xns^io-Cerman  and  Anj^do-ltalian  as^rce- 
nani.-.  In  i!ii^  t'.icre  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  he  would  have  been 
-■.:pp  »rted  by  iliC  majority  of  his  (»wn  jjarty  as  well  as  by  the  whole 
<  I  t;ie  nj)jh  ,>iiiun.  But  it  is  notorious  that  the  few  extreme  anti- 
•.irperia!i-i>  -n  ip.c  I  bane  (jf  C(jnimons  were  represented  in  the 
(  ■.:\)]'Ac[  by  mi;i;-,tri-,  ','.  ho^c  inllucncc  compelled  the  Prime  Minister 
to  a  coinp:.  ::.iM'  ..I'icli  couM  neither  satisfv  him-^elf  nor  the  C(jun- 
try  .;t  !ar,L;c.      In  jinie,   iSo;,  it  was  announced  in  Parliament  that 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  199 

1893-1894 

the  government  had  resolved  to  retain  Uganda,  and  to  administer 
it  as  a  protectorate  under  a  commissioner.  But  this  apphed  only 
to  Uganda  proper,  which  was  a  territory  of  comparatively  limited 
area ;  the  relations  of  the  commissioner  to  the  countries  beyond,  to 
Unyoro,  Toro,  and  the  other  native  states  between  Uganda  and 
Lakes  Albert  and  Albert  Edward,  were  of  a  very  vague  character. 
He  was  to  maintain  friendly  relations  with  the  chiefs,  to  discourage 
the  slave-trade,  and  generally  maintain  peace.  Not  only  Uganda, 
but  practically  the  whole  region  between  Lake  Victoria  and  Lakes 
Albert  and  Albert  Edward  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Uganda 
Commissioner;  the  British  here,  then,  are  bound  by  the  terms  of  the 
Anglo-German  agreement  to  give  effect  to  the  rules  of  the  Berlin 
Conference.  Considering  the  peculiar  geographical  position  of 
Uganda  this  is  inevitable,  especially  if  the  clave-trade  is  to  be  con- 
trolled and  the  frontiers  of  the  protectorate  proper  defended  from 
attack. 

With  regard  to  the  region  lying  between  Uganda  and  the  coast 
it  was  nominally  to  be  under  a  different  regime.  It  was  to  be 
placed  under  a  sub-commissioner,  in  turn  responsible  to  the  Brit- 
ish agent  in  Uganda.  "  His  first  and  main  duty,"  to  quote  the 
words  of  the  Under  Foreign  Secretary,  "  will  be  to  take  charge  of 
the  communications  between  Lake  Victoria  and  the  coast.  His  duty, 
of  course,  will  extend  to  establishing  such  friendly  relations  with 
the  natives  as  will  enable  these  communications  to  be  maintained, 
and  also  to  establishing  such  relations  as  shall  make  it  possible  for 
British  capital  and  enterprise  to  enter  that  country,  and  the  inter- 
vening country  between  Lake  Victoria  and  the  coast  if  disposed  to 
do  so."  Combined  with  the  fact  that  the  British  East  Africa  Com- 
pany had  already  made  treaties  with  most  of  the  chiefs  in  this 
region,  treaties  approved  of  and  accepted  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  virtually  placing  the  region  under  British  protection,  it 
is  evident  that  the  sub-commissioner's  duties  were  not  to  be  very 
different  from  those  of  the  Commissiuner  of  Uganda.  At  present 
the  total  annual  sum  allotted  as  a  grant  in  aid  for  the  administra- 
tion of  Uganda  and  the  intervening  country  is  about  $650,000; 
this  is  increased  from  local  resources  by  about  $195,000. 

There  still  remained  to  be  dealt  with  the  ten-mile  strip  of  coast 
which  had  been  leased  by  the  Sultan  of  Zanzil)ar  to  the  British  East 
Africa  Company.  Tlie  company,  when  it  retired  from  Uganda  in 
March,  1893,  retained  posts  in  Kikuyu,  at  Machako's  and  one  or 


.>(H>  AT  HI  (A 

1890-1895 

two  plnoc^  in  the  interior,  tliiis  practicnlly  confining:  its  operations 
within  thc<c  hmits.  The  i;ovornnicnt  iu'sitated  to  make  up  its  mind 
what  course  to  take;  it  could  not,  witliout  the  consent  of  the  com- 
pany, deal  wit!i  the  coast  strip  held  under  concession,  or  attach  it 
to  the  suh  coniniissi(->iicrship;  nor  could  it  withdraw  the  company's 
charter  with,  tit  rc:is«Mi  assiq:nc(h  In  the  l)c.q:inninj:j  of  1895  the 
j^ovcrnincnt  otTcrcd  the  cnipany.  on  hchaif  of  Zanzihar,  $1,000,- 
ivxi  in  satisfaction  (^f  all  its  claims,  including-  its  assets,  with  a  sum 
of  $J5o.ooo  for  tlic  cc:^-!<Mi  of  its  charter.  Thus  ended  the  career 
oi  a  comiiaiu-  from  which  so  much  was  expected;  and  that,  had  it 
not  been  for  the  exig-encies  of  party  politics  in  England,  might  still 
have  been  continuing  the  work  so  well  begun  by  Captain  Lugard, 
It  is  (Milv  fair  to  rcincmhcr  that  the  founders  of  the  company 
stepped  into  the  breach  at  a  critical  moment. 

The  government,  on  the  retiring  of  the  company  from  Witu, 
felt  compelled  to  take  a  step  which  led  to  a  distinct  retrogression  of 
Hritish  policy  in  Africa.  When,  in  accordance  with  the  Anglo- 
( ifrni.in  agreement  of  1890,  the  W^itu  country  was  made  over  to 
Clreat  Britain,  it  was  (May.  1891)  placed  under  the  control  of  the 
company,  the  legal  status  of  slavery  abolished,  and  the  India  Civil 
and  Criminnl  dxk'  established  throughout  the  country.  The  com- 
pany became  di-^atisficd  with  the  treatment  of  the  government,  and 
in  1893  intimated  that  it  would  not  be  responsible  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  Witu  Tificr  July  31  of  that  vear.  The  result  was  that 
Witu  was  placed  by  the  government  under  the  sultanate  of  Zanzi- 
fi.ir.  Mi'liammedan  law  established,  and  the  legal  status  of  slavery 
ie-t"red,  a  retrograde  and  wholly  unnecessary  step  for  which  the 
r.rit;-!'.  (i"vcrnment  has  not  vet  ])ecn  able  to  offer  any  excuse.  The 
i-.a-t  Airican  Company  itself  surrendered  its  charter  two  years 
later. 

Such  then  wa-^  the  [)r  sition  of  affairs  in  that  portion  of  British 
l-.a-t  .■\frira  lying  between  the  coast  and  the  eastern  shores  of  Lakes 
.\lbert  and  Albert  IMward.  .Meanwhile  imj)ortant  arrangements 
\'. ere  Ixincr  made  with  respect  to  a  prirtion  at  least  of  the  extensive 
I'.-it!-!i  >;/:tre  lying  beyond  that  limit,  the  claims  to  which  Lord 
!'•  mIktv  s  g'.\ernnu-nt  rejuatedlv  declared  it  had  no  iiUention  of 
'  -'i''  '-''''-T-  I"  tlu'  {-Iiap'ar  dealing  with  the  Congo  h'ree  State 
•■  ?err:nf  l:.'!^  bc'-n  nirir'r  t..  (!if  f;iet  that  in  1891  a  formidable  expe- 
';;t!.>n  v>a-;  ^ent  I'r-ni  tl-c  Congo  ir,u;ird  the  Upper  \il(\  It  is  not 
;  Icar  that  tl;e  e\|'evi*:  .n  vvw  -ueceeded   in  establishing  a  footing 


BRITISH     EAST    AFRICA  SOI 

1893-1804 

at  Lado,  which  was  beheved  to  be  its  objective  point;  and  it  is 
known  that  in  the  early  part  of  1894  it  received  a  severe  check  from 
the  natives  of  the  Niam-Niam  country.  Still  there  is  no  doubt  that 
if  the  force  from  the  Congo  Free  State  had  not  actually  established 
itself  on  the  Nile  within  the  British  sphere,  it  was  making  every 
effort  to  do  so.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  King  Leopold,  as 
sovereign  of  the  Congo  Free  State,  maintained  that  in  thus  push- 
ing on  to  the  Upper  Nile,  he  was  within  his  right  in  accordance 
with  an  agreement  made  with  the  late  Sir  William  Mackinnon. 
But  both  Salisbury  and  Rosebery  declined  to  recognize  any  such 
right,  and  repeatedly  vvarned  King  Leopold  that  he  was  trespassing. 
But  the  movements  of  the  French  on  the  Upper  Mobangi  intro- 
duced complications.  It  was  known  that  a  strong  French  expedi- 
tion, fully  equipped  with  boats  and  well  armed,  had  been  on  the 
Mobangi  during  1893- 1894.  ^^  was  stated  that  the  expedition  was 
only  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  Colonel  IMonteil  to  proceed  west- 
ward toward  the  Nile.  Rumors  of  other  French  expeditions  from 
west  and  east  were  also  afloat.  It  was  known  that  apart  from  the 
acquisition  of  territory  in  Africa,  France  v.-as  anxious  to  obtain 
such  a  footing  on  the  Upper  Nile  as  would  give  her  a  controlling 
voice  in  Egyptian  affairs.  She  never  was  a  party  to  the  Anglo- 
German  and  Anglo-Italian  agreements,  and  considered  herself 
unfettered  by  their  conditions,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  being  at 
liberty  to  take  possession  of  any  part  of  the  British  sphere  which 
had  not  been  actually  occupied.  Between  France  and  the  Congo 
Free  State  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  anti-imperialist  section  of  the 
Radical  party  on  the  other,  the  hold  of  England  on  the  extensive 
and  valuable  territories  conceded  to  her  beyond  the  great  lakes 
seemed  precarious.  The  position  of  Lord  Rosebery,  then  Foreign 
Minister  in  a  Cabinet  an  influential  section  of  whose  members  was 
either  indifferent  or  positively  hostile  to  extension  of  the  empire, 
was  a  difficult  one.  Fie  had  many  interests  to  consider.  Had  he 
taken  the  bold  and  most  effective  course,  of  following  up  Major 
Owen's  expedition,  to  come  to  terms  witli  the  people  on  the  Upper 
Nile,  and  plant  the  British  flag  on  its  banks,  he  would  have  had 
the  support  of  the  country  and  of  Parliament,  but  he  might  have 
wrecked  his  party.  He  adopted  wliat  seemed  at  first  sight  a  strange 
compromise.  It  was  impracticable  in  the  immediate  future  to  send 
a  British  expedition  to  take  possession  of  the  region  ])eyond  the 
L^pper  Nile,  toward  which,  on  tlie  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  it  was  believed 


ooo  A  1'  K  I  C  A 

1893-1894 

t!ic  IVcTuli  were  .nlvaticintr.  \s  the  forces  of  the  Conj^o  I'Vec  State 
were  <•!!  the  >|' "I.  wliv  tie!  in. ike  the  hest  of  tlic  situation  and  lUihze 
l!-.em  .IS  a  hiilVtr  hetueeii  I'reiieh  ainhition  and  tlie  Ul)|)er  Xile? 
Sueh  seems  to  have  heen  the  train  of  rcasonini;-  which  led  to  the 
as^reeinent  o\  Mav  u.  iS()4.  hetween  Cireat  Britain  and  King 
l.et'(»fM  as  sovereign  i^i  ihe  C'onj^o  hVce  State.  By  this  agree- 
ment l.eopoKI  reei'L,Mhzed  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  tlie 
territories  assigned  to  her  l)y  the  Anglo-dcrman  and  Anglo-Itahan 
at:recment>.  aiul  aii\-  '^nhseiinent  niochl'ications  could  not  affect  this 
reioi;nii!iiii.  lie  agreed  to  accept  from  the  British  Government  a 
lea-e  of  a  consi(lei"al)le  area  of  this  territory,  extending  from  Lake 
Alliert  to  hevoiid  I'ashoda,  and  stretching  westward  to  the  twenty- 
fifth  decree  i>f  east  longitude  and  the  water-parting  between  the 
hasius  of  the  Xile  and  tlie  Congo,  so  as  to  bar  the  further  advance 
of  {"reikli  claims,  lie  boutul  himself  not  to  acquire  political  rights 
in  l!'.e-e  territories,  and  as  a  return  granted  to  Great  liritain  a  lease 
of  a  >trij)  sixteen  miles  in  breadth  from  the  most  northerly  port  on 
Lake  Tanganyika  to  the  most  southerly  port  on  Lake  Albert  Ktl- 
ward.  a  strip,  be  it  noted,  bordering  on  the  western  frontier  of  Ger- 
man I'.asi  Africa:  he  agreed,  moreover,  to  an  adjustment  of  the 
\\e-:ern  fr'-ntier  of  Ihitish  (^MUral  Africa  to  the  advantage  of 
r.r;i>li  imeresi>.  This  arrangement  seemed  at  hrst  sight  a  triumph 
'f  <l;plomai-y.  It  settled  delhiitely  the  irritating  question  of  the 
fr. 'iitier  bitwicn  the  Congo  Vwv  .States  and  the  British  sphere  in 
!:■(•  'egioii  of  Lakes  Mweru  and  i '.angwcolo.  It  gratitieil  the  a^pira- 
ti'  :-  I  if  ili..-e  who  were  amiiiiious  to  see  an  uninterrupted  British 
liric  extend  fr.  in  the  Cape  to  ijie  Xile,  if  not  to  Cairo.  Alxjve  all, 
;t  !i!:p  .-ed  a  br^ad  biitYer  between  the  bTench  sphere  and  the  Nile, 
f' -r  the  r^'Uie  to  the  north  of  the  tenth  parallel  was  supposed  to  be 
effe  tivLl;,-  barred  by  the  Malulists.  And  finally,  it  turned  to  the 
.■'.•'■.  .ii'.ta'^e  i.f  British  claims  the  position  which  had  been  obtained 
by  the  !  irrc-  ■  f  the  Cong.)  Lree  State  on  the  Ci)])er  Nile. 

1:  wa^  n   *  in  br  expected  tliat  b'rance  woidd  (juietly  submit  to 

•  e::;i/':atic  :i  e'lecl;   in  t!:e  <;ame  of  grab  which  she  was  playing 

■'    ■'  '   '  'her  i.iiri'pra'i  pi.wa-rs  in  Africa,  I'higland  being  her  most 

Cic  arraiiL' nient   toi  rk   place  just  at   the   time  when 

.'..1-:  ■,•.  ;'hont  a  Uiuii-iry;  and  the  llrst  act  of  the  new  min- 

■  ^■  !     '■'■  .';  -"leniii  protest  against  the  ])erfidy  and  illegality 

.'. Iiile  t!if   Lrcnch  press  wcnild  be  satisfied  with 

f    ■••■■■g  ' '-:'•   •■  '■  .i«l\an(e  of  the   h  rench  fc^rce.      It   wa.-^  maintained 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  203 

1893-1894 

that  according  to  the  BerHii  Act,  the  Congo  Free  State  had  no 
right  to  go  beyond  the  fourth  parallel  north ;  that  the  right  of  pre- 
emption which  had  been  accorded  to  France  precluded  the  Free 
State  making  any  arrangement  with  another  power  without  her 
consent;  that  this  attempt  to  annex  the  former  Egyptian  province 
of  Bahr-el-Ghazal  was  a  direct  violation  of  the  integrity  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  which  France  for  the  moment  felt  it  her  duty 
to  champion.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  even  in  France  the  contentions 
put  forward  were  taken  seriously ;  France  herself  has  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  ignoring  the  "  rights  "  of  Turkey  in  Africa  when  it  suited 
her  purpose.  She  had  for  the  moment  been  defeated  in  the  game 
she  was  playing,  and  it  was  not  in  her  nature  to  take  her  defeat 
with  composure. 

England  and  the  King  of  the  Belgians  were  equally  involved 
in  French  indignation.  Colonel  Monteil  was  ordered  at  once  to 
proceed  to  the  Mobangi  and  take  command  of  the  forces  there 
awaiting  his  arrival.  He  was  not  to  hesitate  to  take  extreme  meas- 
ures to  expel  the  officials  of  the  Congo  Free  State  from  the  stations 
on  the  Mbomu  tributary  of  the  ]\Iobangi,  considerably  to  the  north 
of  the  fourth  parallel,  which  had  been  established  there  for  some 
time.  Moreover,  it  was  understood  he  was  to  push  on  Nile-ward 
and  plant  the  French  flag,  if  necessary  by  force,  in  the  face  of  any 
opposition  that  might  be  offered  by  the  forces  of  England's  royal 
lessee.  But  the  astute  king  had  no  intention  of  surrendering  the 
advantages  he  had  secured.  Before  the  arrangement  with  Great 
Britain  he  had  been  negotiating  with  France  with  reference  to  the 
stations  of  the  Congo  Free  State  in  the  Mbomu  country  to  the  north 
of  the  fourth  degree.  The  negotiations  were  promptly  broken  off 
by  France  when  the  agreement  came  to  light,  not  without  a  sus-- 
picion  in  some  quarters  that  the  game  had  been  prearranged ;  for 
after  the  storm  of  indignation  had  somewhat  died  down  the  king 
easily  succeeded  in  ])ersuading  the  French  Government  to  renew 
them.  Evidently  he  had  an  eye  solely  to  his  own  interests  in  ob- 
taining access  to  the  Albert  Nyanza  and  the  Nile ;  in  that  respect 
he  was  neither  better  nor  worse  than  the  other  powers.  He  treated 
England  in  East  Africa  precisely  as  Germany  did  in  West  Africa. 
He  gave  up  all  claim  as  lessee  to  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ter- 
ritory acquired  under  the  agreement  of  the  previous  May.  By  an 
agreement  signed  at  Paris,  August  14,  1894,  l^eopold  renounced 
all  right  of  occupation  or  influence  in  the  territory  leased  to  him 


so*  A  r  RICA 

1890-1894 

In-  Grent  Britain  north  of  5°  30'  north  latitude.  This  line,  it  will 
he  seen,  ttuiches  the  Xile  a  short  distance  north  of  Lado.  In  return 
for  this  renunciation  on  the  i)art  of  Leopold,  France  agreed  to  move 
the  ht>iindary  of  the  Congo  h'rce  State  considcrahly  to  the  north  of 
the  fourth  parallel.  The  northern  boundary  of  the  Free  State  in 
the  east  was  moved  to  about  the  fifth  degree,  thus  violating  the 
limit  which  bVance  a  few  weeks  before  maintained  according  to  the 
Berlin  Act  was  inviolable. 

Germany,  wiili  less  bluster  than  France,  but  with  more  firm- 
ness and  directness,  protested  against  the  cession  to  Great  Britain 
as  lessee  of  the  strip  of  territory  along  her  East  African  frontier 
between  I^'ikcs  Tanganyika  and  Albert  Edward.  This  was  regarded 
by  her  as  a  violation  of  the  understanding  which  had  been  reached 
in  1S90  as  to  the  western  boundary  of  German  East  Africa,  which 
Germany  insisted  should  march  with  the  Congo  Free  State.  There 
was,  however,  little  hesitation  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  in  as- 
senting to  the  cancellation  of  the  lease  of  the  strip  objected  to,  and 
the  resumption  in  full  by  Leopold  of  the  one  concession  he  had 
made. 

Such  then  in  brief  is  the  story  of  the  most  exciting  transaction 
in  the  partition  of  Africa  which  took  place  in  1894.  In  England 
the  views  expressed  at  the  outset  were  mostly  colored  by  political 
prejudices.  On  the  one  side  the  arrangement  with  Leopold  was 
unreservedly  condemned  as  weak  and  humiliating;  on  the  other  it 
was  regardeil  as  a  clever  compromise ;  it  has  certainly  not  succeeded 
in  securing  the  object  ostensibly  aimed  at.  But,  at  the  time,  imme- 
diate action  was  necessary;  it  was  imjjracticable  to  send  a  suflicient 
force  to  take  possession  of  the  British  sphere  on  the  Upper  Xile; 
the  course  adojited  seemed  to  secure  the  end  in  view,  and  no  doubt 
would  have  done  so  had  King  Leopold  adhered  to  his  original  un- 
dertaking; but  this  would  have  implied  the  active  hostility  of 
I-'rance. 

Xwtv.'.tlistanding  its  troubles  in  connection  with  Uganda,  the 
British  ]::[>i  Africa  Company  was  not  idle  elsewhere.  Ernest 
Berkeley,  wlm  h;i(l  Imd  considerable  experience  in  the  East  African 
coii-nlar  service,  assumed  tlie  office  of  administrator  in  i<S9i,  and 
under  l:;ni  t'le  eiiter]M-iscs  of  the  company  were  conducted  energet- 
ically and  econrnnically.  Tlie  Tana  was  carefully  explored,  and 
found  to  be  an  uncertain  waterway;  the  troublesome  Sultan  of 
W  itu  was  induced  to  settle  down  quietly;  friendly  relations  were 


BRITISH     EAST     AFRICA  205 

1890-1895 

entered  into  with  the  chiefs  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the  River  Jub, 
the  boundarj^  between  the  British  and  Itahan  spheres,  and  the  capa- 
bih'ties  of  the  river  as  a  trade  route  were  investigated,  with  the 
result  that  it  was  found  to  be  navigable  for  400  miles  of  its  course. 
Specialists  were  employed  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  planting 
and  agricultural  capacities  of  the  coast  regions,  with  results  very 
favorable  to  the  prosecution  of  industries.  By  an  agreement  with 
the  sultan  in  1891  the  lease  for  fifty  years  of  the  strip  of  coast 
claimed  by  him  was  converted  into  a  grant  in  perpetuity  in  consid- 
eration of  an  annual  payment  of  about  $80,000.  The  whole  length 
of  the  coast-line  thus  acquired  measured  400  miles.  The  customs 
dues  rose  steadily  from  $35,000  in  1889  to  $80,000  in  1892.  Un- 
der Dr.  Stewart  of  Lovedale  an  industrial  institution  for  training 
natives  was  established  near  Machako's,  and  at  the  expense  of  Sir 
William  Mackinnon  a  good  road  was  made  from  the  coast.  A 
greater  sense  of  security  began  to  prevail  in  the  interior,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  most  troublesome  tribes,  including  the  Masai,  sent  large 
numbers  of  the  people  down  to  the  coast  to  make  friends  with  the 
company.  Small  experiments  had  been  made  with  Indian  immi- 
grants ;  these  were  successful,  but  there  were  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  obtaining  such  immigrants  in  numbers  sufficient  to  colonize  on 
a  large  scale.  Notwithstanding  mistakes  and  misfortunes,  the 
company  during  the  years  of  its  existence  must  be  admitted  to  have 
done  much  for  the  effective  occupation  and  development  of  the 
regions  between  the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  coast.  It  withdrew 
from  Uganda  and  W'itu  in  1893,  and  in  June,  1895,  a  British  pro- 
tectorate was  proclaimed  over  the  regions  in  question.  This  was 
divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  the  East  Africa  and  the 
Uganda  protectorates. 

Although  it  did  not  flirectly  affect  the  operations  of  the  com- 
pany, the  declaration  in  the  summer  of  1890  of  a  British  protec- 
torate over  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pcmba  tended  to  give  it 
a  greater  feeling  of  security  cind  permanence.  A  regular  adminis- 
tration under  British  auspices  was  formed  by  agreement,  Octo1)cr, 
1 89 1,  in  the  sultan's  restricted  dominions,  which  must  tlicreforc 
be  regarded  as  distinctlv  within  the  I'Jritish  sphere.  It  is  deserving 
of  note  that  when  Sir  Gerald  Portal  was  a|)])r)intcrl  Commissioner, 
he  was  autliorizcd  to  exercise,  under  an  Order  in  Coimcil,  a  general 
supervision  over  the  lerri!orics  immediately  under  Britisli  inducnce 
in  Eastern  Africa.     This  was  in  reality  an  acknowledgment  of  im- 


'»(>«  A  F  R  I  (  A 

1692  1910 

porial   rosp<Misil)iIitv   f(^r  the  adiiiitiistratioii   of   the  entire  British 
splitTc  HI  l-'.asl  Africa. 

'I'hc  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  now  receives  a  fixed  sum  and  retains 
his  private  estates,  tlie  pubhc  revenues  beinj::^  wholly  administered 
bv  Hritish  cflk-ors  inidcr  the  direction  of  the  consul-general.  But 
t!;o  ri-vciinc^  (^f  the  state  have  shrunk  much  since  the  time  when 
Zanzibar  was  iiulcpondcnt  under  the  late  Sultan  Burs;hash,  whose 
rc\cmic  amounted  to  about  5|^  1.150,000  yearly.  This  is  due  in  part 
to  tlir  lo-is  of  the  German  coast,  and  so  of  the  chief  ivory  caravan 
route,  partly  also  to  the  creation  of  Zanzibar  as  a  free  port  in  1892, 
:\ni.\  to  t!ic  workini::  of  the  free  system  of  the  Berlin  Act ;  the  restora- 
titni  of  import  duties  in  1899  for  Zanzibar,  though  only  five  per 
cent,  a  J  ivlorciii,  will  tend  toward  a  substantial  increase  of  revenue. 


r     a:      O 


Chapter    XVI 

THE    ITALIAN    SPHERE    AND    THE    ISLANDS.    1875-1910 

AS  was  the  case  with  Germany,  Italy  very  soon  after  it  be- 
came a  united  kingdom  sought  to  obtain  possessions 
L  abroad.  So  long  ago  as  1875  Italian  vessels  were  hovering 
around  Sokotra,  and  compelled  England  to  place  her  imperial  stamp 
upon  the  island.  Tripoli  was  for  a  time  a  sore  temptation  also  to  the 
young  kingdom  on  the  other  side  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  fear  of 
complications  with  France  and  Turkey  induced  her  to  keep  her 
hands  off.  We  have  seen  that,  although  in  1870  a  spot  in  Assab  Bay, 
just  inside  the  Red  Sea,  was  purchased  as  a  coaling  station,  it  was 
not  till  1880  that  the  Italian  Government  even  nominally  took  it 
over.  From  this  as  a  starting-point  the  Italian  possessions  in  the 
Red  Sea  spread  northward.  Southward  they  could  go  no  farther 
than  Raheita,  as  the  French  station  of  Obock  barred  the  way.  Italian 
explorers  and  missionaries  had  been  active  in  this  part  of  Africa 
for  years;  but  it  was  not  until  July,  1882,  that  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment took  actual  possession  of  the  territory  and  Bay  of  Assab.  Un- 
til 1885  Italy's  footing  in  the  Ived  Sea  hardly  extended  beyond 
Assab ;  but  in  that  year,  taking  advantage  of  Egyi)t's  difficulties 
with  the  Mahdists,  she  took  possession  of  the  Beilul  and  of  the  im- 
portant port  of  IMassawa,  the  Egyptian  garrison  of  the  latter  being 
compelled  to  quit.  "Jliese  advances  were  taken  with  the  connivance 
if  not  the  approval  of  England.  Had  Italy  not  taken  and  held 
Massawa,  it  might  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahdists. 
Italian  domination  rapidly  extended  all  along  the  coast,  so  that  by 
1888  it  reached  from  Cape  Kasar  on  the  north  to  the  French 
colony  of  Obock  in  the  south,  some  650  miles. 

These  advances  on  the  part  of  Italy  were  not  regarded,  as 
may  be  believed,  witli  .any thing  like  complacency  by  King  John  of 
Abyssinia.  The  hostile  action  of  the  latter  led  to  what  was  really 
a  war  between  the  Italian  garrison  and  the  Abyssinian  army;  at 
Dogali,  in  January,  1887,  an  Italian  force  was  almost  annihilated. 
But  this  did  not  prevent  Italy  from  adhering    to    what    she  had 

207 


ftOS  A  V  H  I  C  A 

1887-1894 

pained.  ni)(l  nt tempt iiicf  t(i  push  licr  influence  into  the  interior. 
After  ilie  tie.ith  *>i'  KiniT  jnhii  the  interior  posts  of  Keren  and 
Asmai.i  were  oeeupied.  as  well  as  other  places  not  far  from  the 
eoa^t.  hut  i;i\iiii;  eommaiid  <•!'  the  routes  to  the  lofty  tahieland. 
K\U'^  John  was  Miceeeded  hy  Menelek,  \\u]g;  of  Shoa,  who  sliowed 
sonie  iiiclinatioii  to  estaijjish  friendly  relations  with  the  Italians. 
r.y  an  atifreenient  of  May.  1S89,  conhrmcd  and  renewed  in  Octoher 
of  the  same  vear.  a  treaty  i){  *'  mutual  protection  "  was  entered  into 
between  Menelek  and  the  Kin<^  of  Italy.  This  was  naturally  re- 
.trarded  as  in  elYect  placins^  Ahysinnia  under  the  protection  of  Italy, 
th.'U<,'!i  on  inMie  than  one  occasion  thereafter  Menelek  formally 
rei)udiated  any  such  interpretation,  the  protection,  he  maintained, 
beinq:  as  much  on  his  side  as  on  that  of  Italy.  By  various  decrees 
in  iS<)(i  and  iS<;i  the  Italian  possessions  on  the  Red  Sea  have  been 
e  n>tituiei!  into  the  colony  of  Eritrea,  with  an  autonomous  admin- 
i>trat;on  and  the  manai^ement  of  its  own  finances.  These,  however, 
have  to  be  subsidized  by  Italy,  which  spent  about  twenty-five  million 
dollars  on  her  Red  Sea  colonies  between  1887  and  1892.  The  area 
of  the  territory  is  about  88.500  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
Slime  450. cxK^.  lari^ely  nomadic,  while  that  of  the  former  so-called 
jm  'tectoratc  of  Abyssinia  was  about  195,000  square  miles,  includ- 
ini;  Shoa,  Kaffa,  Harrar,  and  other  places  claimed  by  King 
Menelek. 

In  July.  1894,  owin":  to  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Dervish 
f^'fccs  at  Kassala  on  the  northwest  frontier  of  Abyssinia,  a  large 
It.dian  force  proceeded  from  the  post  at  Keren,  thoroughly  de- 
icateil  tlic  Dervishes  and  caj)tured  Kassala.  By  an  arrangement 
with  Ijigland  in  March,  i8(ji,  Italy  was  permitted  to  occupy 
ka^.-ala  if  necessary  fc^r  military  purposes,  only,  however,  on  con- 
•  iiti'ii  tliat  it  sliould  be  temporary,  and  that  she  should  give  it  up 
V. licncver  Iv^^ypt  was  in  a  position  to  take  it  over.  The  immense 
.:  Ivantas^^es  to  Italy  of  occupying  the  frontier  post  are  evident;  it 
ii.itnrally  ],'-ovoked  tlie  hostility  of  the  Dervishes,  but  the  success 
oi  i!ic  halian>  excited  t!ie  active  hostility  of  King  Menelek  of 
.Miy  —  inia,  ~  ;  tliat  between  the  Dervishes  on  the  one  side  and  the 
Al;_\ -^;ni.•;;;>  .  n  tl;e  other,  the  resources  of  Italy  in  money  and  men 
V,  err  M,\erL-ly  .-trained. 

!5i:t  Ita!y  v>,i>  not  content  with  securing  a  position  on  the  Red 
Sea.  ^nice  he  could  not  obtain  Sok(jtra,  she  turned  her  attention 
to  i:ie  barren  c-;a-.t  oj-jjo^ite  un  the  African  mainland,  inhabited  by 


THE     ITALIAN     SPHERE  209 

1884-1901 

the  fiercely  independent  nomads,  the  Somalis  and  Gallas.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1889,  the  Sultan  of  Obbia,  on  the  Somali  coast,  placed  his 
sultanate  under  the  protection  of  Italy.  In  April  of  the  same  year 
the  Italian  sphere  was  extended  to  the  country  between  5°  33'  and 
8°  3'  north  latitude  by  treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  the  Mijertine 
Somalis,  who  at  the  same  time  bound  himself  to  make  no  treaty 
with  any  other  power  regarding  the  rest  of  his  territory.  A  treaty 
of  1901  confirms  this  arrangement.  On  the  other  side,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1889,  the  Somali  coast  from  the  sultanate  of  Obbia  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Jub  River  was  declared  to  be  within  the  sphere  of 
Italy. 

Here  was  a  stretch  of  some  800  miles  of  coast,  with  vague 
extension  inward,  added  with  wonderful  rapidity  to  Italy's  "  for- 
eign possessions."  It  apparently  did  not  concern  her  that  the  coast 
was  little  better  than  a  sandy  waste ;  she  had  a  vague  idea  that 
somehow  it  might  be  a  convenient  back  door  to  Abyssinia  and 
Shoa,  all  the  more  if  the  Jub  River  were  found  to  be  a  practicable 
waterway.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  the  Italian  sphere  and  the 
British  overlapped.  As  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  had  ceded  to  the 
British  company  his  territory  as  far  north  as  Warsheikh,  Italy 
obviously  claimed  what  already  belonged  to  another  power.  How- 
ever, there  was  no  difficulty  in  coming  to  an  understanding.  The 
British  company  very  readily  conceded  all  its  claims  on  the  coast 
to  the  north  of  the  Jub,  on  the  understanding  that  Italy  would  not 
be  too  exacting  as  to  the  delimitation  between  the  spheres  of  the 
two  powers  in  the  interior.  W'hen,  however,  it  came  to  actual 
negotiations,  Italy  showed  but  little  disposition  to  minimize  her 
claims.  The  boundary  between  the  spheres  of  the  two  countries  was 
settled  by  agreement  in  March,  1891.  In  Somaliland  and  Galla- 
land  this  gave  to  Italy  an  area  of  355,000  square  miles,  on  whicli 
there  was  a  scanty  population  of  some  one  and  a  half  million.  The 
whole  area  claimed  by  Italy  in  Africa  was  over  600,000  square 
miles. 

A  further  delimitation  between  the  British  and  Italian  spheres 
in  Somaliland  was  made  by  agreement  between  the  two  countries 
]\Iay  5,  1894.  Hie  British  protectorate  in  Somaliland  dates  from 
1884,  in  wiiich  year  Great  l^ritain  occupied  Jjerbcra,  Bulbar,  and 
Zaila.  By  an  Order  in  Council  dated  September  10,  1889,  a  pro- 
tectorate was  ])roclaimed  over  the  whole  coast  from  Ras  Jibuti  to 
Bandar  Ziyada.     By  an  agreement  concluded  with  France  in  1888 


010  AFRICA 

1887-1910 

tlic  IxMJudntv  between  the  P.ritish  nnd  Frcndi  protcctomtes  ran 
from  the  C'liilf  i>f  Taiina  toward  Ilarrar.  This  itiii)(>rlaiit  town, 
since  1SS7  (vcupiod  by  Kiiii,'  Menelck.  was  not  to  be  seized  by  either 
jvnver.  each  rctainin;^'  the  ri.^ht  to  prevent  any  other  nation  from 
takiiii:  pos>c-sion.  I'.y  the  ai^rcenient  of  1894  Great  Britain  waived 
her  rii;!it  in  fav.T  iA  Italy,  if  the  latter  cared  or  dared  to  take  pos- 
session. 'Hiis  deluiitely  settled  the  limits  of  British  Somaliland, 
uhicli  covered  an  area  oi  75.000  S(|nare  miles,  but  in  1897  by  a  ces- 
si'Mi  in  favor  ^^i  Abyssinia  the  territory  was  reduced  to  68.000. 
l':.nu-e.  as  usual,  protested  ac^aiust  this  arran.<;emcnt.  maintainin.i,' 
that  it  was  a  violati<'n  of  that  of  1888.  Less  pro^-rcss  has  been  made 
in  Soiualil.uid  than  elsewhere  in  the  British  colonics,  owing-  to  the 
I'lcrce  and  intract.ible  population.  This  protectorate  was  subject 
to  the  hunan  Government  till  1898. 

It.dy  then,  like  otlicr  great  powers  of  Europe,  acfiuircd  a  fair 
p. 'rtiou  of  the  continent  in  the  scramble  for  Africa.  A  small  and 
prudent  minority  in  the  Italian  Parliament  attempted  in  vain  to 
<'l)po^^c  the  craving  for  an  "African  luiipire ''  which  had  seized 
ri-enerated  Italy.  Italy's  African  territory,  with  its  numerous 
otVicials  .and  its  African  cor])S  of  over  6000  officers  and  men,  was  a 
drain  on  the  rcsoiu'ces  of  a  country  whose  financial  difliculties  are 
n-itorious.  Massawa  is  no  doubt  an  important  port,  and  its  trade, 
as  tlie  leading  gate  from  the  sea  to  Abyssinia,  is  capable  of  con- 
siderable development.  I^he  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  Massawa 
m.-iy  be  wuth  ha\  ing.  Pnit  the  advantage  of  most  of  the  other 
trrritory  claimed  by  Italv  is  dr)ubtful.  P'nless  her  resources  and 
Irt  ji'iv.er  increase  immensely,  she  can  never  exi)ect  to  have  any 
real  !;<.ld  o\er  the  most  inaccessil)le  and  most  mountainous  country 
of  Africa,  with  a  p(;pulation  fiercely  indej)endent.  As  for  the  coun- 
try in  the  S'-inah"  interior,  its  commercial  value  can  never  be  great. 
P.- 'til  n-rlh  and  SMUth,  Italy  has  Paigland  to  compete  with.  On  the 
n'.nhern  cia-t  of  S'lnialiland  Pjiglrmd  is  sui)reme  from  Tajura 
P.  ly  fo  near  ('ape  Gnardafui;  her  pf)rt  at  Berbera  draws  to  it  most 
of  tiic  cr.ninicrce  of  the  interior.  Meantime  it  is  to  Italy's  credit 
t;:at  r.er  lxi)!'  rl■^-^  are  doing  much  for  a  knowledge  of  her  sjihere, 
c-pnia::y  ni  the  .^'imalijand  interior,  which  they  assure  us  is  better 
p.i~:r.rrd  ap.d  bcfer  watered  than  has  been  generally  believed  in  tlie 
pa-t.  it  sli,,u!d  be  noted  that  travelers  in  Somaliland  in  1894-1895 
i'\:u']  It  overrun  hv  tlic  troops  of  King  Menelek,  who  were  ravisli- 
i:!g  t!;e  land,  ;i:i<l  slaying  or  carrying  off  as  slaves  the  bulk  (jf  the 


THE     ITALIAN     SPHERE 


211 


1887-1910 


population ;  this  appears  to  be  but  the  beginning  of  activity  on  the 
part  of  Abyssinia,  which  is  designed  finally  to  wrest  the  region 
from  its  nominal  possessors. 

For  the  sake  of  completeness  reference  may  be  briefly  made  to 
the  destiny  of  the  principal  African  islands.     Sokotra  and  the  Zan- 


RCUNION 

eouRBOK* 


zibar  islands  have  already  been  dealt  witli.  The  great  island  of 
Madagascar  is  virtually  a  French  protectorate.  Tlic  connection  of 
France  with  Madagascar  is  of  ancient  date.  The  island  was  known 
to  Marco  Polo  and  the  Arabs,  and  was  discovered,  so  far  as  Europe 
is  concerned,  by  the  Portuguese  navigator  Diego  Diaz:  in  1500. 
Both  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  in  the  sixteenth  and  tlie  begmning  of 
the  seventeenth  centuries,  tried  in  vain  to  establisli  themselves  on 
the  island.     In  the  early  jjart  of  the  latter  century  the  French  es- 


012  AFRICA 

1644-1897 

t.iMishod  tlictnsclvcs  in  Mn(!n,q:ascar,  to  which  they  gfave  tlie  name 
of  lie  Dauphiti  or  I-'rance  Orientale.  Fort  Dauphin,  at  the  south 
end  of  the  island,  was  founded  in  1644;  it  was  destroyed  in  1672, 
and  manv  oi  the  ciMonists  who  had  settled  in  the  island  were 
mnssacrrd.  I'v  various  decrees  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
ccMtnrifs  i'lviirh  ri.i,dits  to  Mada.c:ascar  were  asserted.  In  1750  the 
little  island  of  Sainte  Marie,  oJY  Madagascar,  was  ceded  to  France, 
though  the  IVcnch  were  expelled  cloven  years  after;  but  the  island 
Ii.is  remained  I-'rcnch  ever  since.  Fort  Dauphin  was  reconstructed 
in  i7(>S.  I'll 'in  1773  to  1786  the  Hungarian  Count  Benyovski  tried 
to  cst.il)li-li  IVench  infhience.  but  without  success:  equally  unsuccess- 
ful was  another  attcmi)t  in  the  first  year  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  Great  Britain  in  181 1.  In 
th.c  Trcjity  of  Paris.  Madagascar  is  not  mentioned  among  the  colo- 
nics which  were  not  to  be  restored  to  France,  and  although  the 
Fnglish  governor  of  Mauritius  attempted  to  maintain  that  Mada- 
gascar was  a  dependency  of  the  latter,  he  did  not  succeed.  At  the 
same  time  British  influence  has  become  strong  in  the  island  through 
the  labors  of  missionaries.  The  London  Missionary  Society,  as 
well  as  other  British  societies,  have  secured  the  adhesion  of  thou- 
sands of  the  Ilovas,  the  ruling  people  in  Madagascar,  but  the 
I'ritish  Government  has  never  seriously  attempted  to  assert  any 
claims  to  domination,  though  early  in  the  century  there  were 
treaties  of  friendship  between  England  and  the  Madagascar  rulers. 
Tlie  small  islands  of  Xossi-Be,  Nossi-Mitsiou,  and  Nossi-Cumba 
were  taken  pc^ssession  of  in  1845  by  the  French,  who  had  been 
a' tempting  in  preceding  years  to  make  their  influence  felt  on  the 
main  i-1;  nd.  Other  efforts  were  made  in  succeeding  years  to 
('tal)l:<h  iM'cncli  intlucnce,  but  without  success.  Under  various 
]'rctc\ts  1-Vaiicc  made  war  u()on  the  Malagasy  from  1883  until 
a  treaty  was  crmclndcd  in  October,  1885,  literally  establish- 
'.yrj;  a  I'rcncli  protectorate  over  the  island,  with  the  cession  of 
i!ic  Bay  of  DiccTO  Suarez  near  its  northern  extremity.  By  the 
.\n;^do-I->f,u!i  a;:rccmcnt  of  August,  i8qo,  the  French  protectorate 
'  vcr  Mad.iLjaM-ar  v.a^  recognized  by  Great  Britain,  in  return  for 
t  :c  ar!;iv  v.ied-nu  lit  by  b'rance  of  a  British  protectorate  over 
/  'i!/!])ar.  It  car,!v  4  be  '^aid  that  the  Malagasy  have  ever  thoroughly 
^'!' .-uinl/cd  tu  I'Vi-ncli  inthicnce.  though  all  llie  foreign  relations  of 
t!.<-  i^Vind  are  -npjKKcd  to  be  in  the  hands  of  France.  In  1894- 
i>^';5    i-raiKx   made   a    .letcrniined    effort   to   strengthen   her   hold 


THE     ITALIAN     SPHERE  213 

1897-1910 

and  secure  complete  control  of  the  island's  interests.  In  1897, 
after  the  crushing  of  an  insurrection  by  General  Gallieni,  it  was 
declared  a  French  colony,  and  the  Hova  monarchy  was  suppressed. 
The  resources  have  never  been  developed  to  any  extent.  Roads  are 
almost  non-existent.  Commercial  advance  since  the  conquest  has 
been  seen  chiefly  in  the  increase  of  imports.  France  tried  in  1897, 
with  some  success,  to  gain  for  herself  a  larger  share  of  the  Mada- 
gascar trade  by  the  imposition  upon  the  colony  of  the  general 
French  tariff.  Though  it  is  doubtful  if  ever  it  could  be  colonized 
by  Europeans  in  the  true  sense,  the  highlands  of  the  interior  are 
healthful,  and  are  capable  of  being  turned  to  good  account,  both  for 
cattle-rearing  and  agriculture.  The  people  themselves,  especially 
the  Hovas,  are  Malays,  a  higher  type  than  the  Africans,  and 
under  good  guidance  might  do  much  to  render  their  island  of  great 
commercial  value. 

The  neighboring  island  of  Mayotte  was  ceded  to  France  in 
1840,  while  the  Comoros,  halfway  between  Madagascar  and  the 
African  coast,  were  taken  possession  of  in  1886.  The  island  of 
Bourbon,  afterward  named  Reunion,  has  belonged  to  France  since 
1764.  Mauritius  was  occupied  by  France  in  1715,  but  was  taken 
by  England  in  18 10,  and  at  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  181 5,  it 
remained  British,  with,  as  satellites,  Rodriguez,  the  Amirantes,  the 
Seychelles,  and  various  scattered  small  islands,  while  Reunion  was 
restored. 

On  the  other  side  of  Africa  it  may  be  said  that  the  Azores, 
]\Iadeira,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  have  been  Portuguese  since 
the  fifteenth  century,  as  the  Canaries  have  been  Spanish.  Various 
islands  off  the  West  Coast  are  attached  to  the  territories  on  the 
mainland  opposite  which  they  lie.  Fernando  Po  was  ceded  to 
Spain  by  Portugal  in  1778,  as  was  the  Island  of  Annobon.  Principe 
and  San  Thome  have  been  Portuguese  since  the  fifteenth  century. 
St.  Helena,  usually  regarded  as  an  African  island,  was  taken  from 
the  Dutch  by  the  English  in  1650,  Ascension  was  occupied  by 
Great  Britain  in  181 5,  and  in  the  year  following  the  distant  islets 
of  Tristan  D'Acunha  were  occupied  by  the  same  powers. 

Thus  all  these  fragmentary  appendages  of  the  great  continent 
have  been  picked  up  by  various  powers  of  Europe  and  no  African 
island  now  remains  to  be  occupied. 


Chapter  XVII 

BRITISH    CI.NTRAL   AND    SOUTH    AFRICA 

1877-1895 

THE  extension  of  the  Britisli  sphere  in  South  Africa  and  in 
the  reirion  watered  hy  tlic  Zamhezi  and  its  atlluents  has, 
since  1SS5.  heen  rapid  and  immense.  Up  to  1884,  T3ritish 
Stiutli  Africa,  with  the  excei)tion  of  tlie  colony  of  Gri(]ualand  West, 
did  not  extCTid  lieyond  the  Orant^c  River.  Tlie  impulse  given  to 
farther  extension  has  been  seen  in  connection  with  German  annexa- 
tions in  Si'Utliwest  Africa.  lUit  the  attention  both  of  the  imperial 
government  and  of  the  Cape  Government  was  directed  to  the 
region  vagnelv  known  as  llcchuanaland  even  before  this  period. 
During  the  four  years  of  British  occupation  of  the  Transvaal 
from  1877  to  1 88 1  comparative  peace  was  maintained  on  its  borders. 
P>ut  no  sooner  had  the  Transvaal  reassumcd  its  independence  than 
it  became  involved  in  disputes  witli  the  tribes  on  its  western 
h-.rders.  The  result  was  intertribal  wars  and  a  struggle  for 
supremacy  among  tlie  ri\al  chiefs.  This  afforded  an  opportunity 
\<<v  Boer  intervention,  with  the  result  that  enormous  areas  of  the 
neighhoring  r.cchuanaland  were  accpu'red,  and  two  I'oer  states 
f>iU!ulc(l.  Stcllaland  and  Grjslieiiland.  This  condition  of  things  coiu- 
pellcd  tl'.c  I'ritish  Go\ern.nicnt  to  consider  what  measures  should 
be  ad'  i])!c-'l  tn  jjrotect  the  iiUerests  of  the  empire  and  of  Caj)e  Colony 
in  thi>  iKtrt  (/!'  South  Africa.  The  convention  of  I-'ebruary.  1884, 
ir-.ed  the  wc-tern  limits  of  the  Transvaal,  and  as  a  conse(|Ucnce  it 
was  deci(k-<l  \"  proclaim  a  British  protectorate  in  Bechuanaland. 
}i']\v.  M;;cl(!i7.ic,  whi.  had  labored  as  a  missionary  for  manv  years 
-1  this  ]);irt  of  Africa,  was  in  1884  a])p(Mnted  Deputy  Com- 
m!<<i')nur  t  1  I'eclnianaland.  .and  in  this  capacilv  concluded  treaties 
v.itli  sevcra.l  rf  t!ie  cln'cfs.  P.ut  this  did  not  prevent  the  Transvaal 
I'-er^  fi'.iri  ri:(r\einiig  and  enclcavoring  to  secure  .a  large  ])iece 
'  f  t!ie  Ik-thr.anaLind  triiitor\'.  Later,  when  ("ceil  J.  Rhodes  suc- 
<  ir<!(<i  .\!ar!,(i:/ic  a^  I)r]MUv  (  onimis'-ioner,  he  refused  to  recognize 
:;ie  claims  .-el  up  hy  the  B(jer>  ;    and  in  (jrder  to  i)ut  an  en<l  to  ah 

211 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  215 

1884-1890 

disputes  and  to  secure  the  whole  territory  for  Great  Britain,  Sir 
Charles  Warren  was  commissioned,  at  the  end  of  1884,  to  proceed 
to  Bechuanaland  with  a  strong  force.  He  accomplished  his  mission 
with  complete  success.  The  boundaries  of  the  Transvaal  were  re- 
stricted to  those  laid  down  in  the  convention  of  February,  1884; 
and  the  British  sphere  was  extended  northward  to  22°  south  lati- 
tude. All  this  was  accomplished  by  August,  1885,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing month  the  southern  portion  of  the  territory  (south  of  the 
]\Iolopo  River)  was  erected  into  a  Crown  colony  under  the  name 
of  British  Bechuanaland.  The  colony,  including  later  extensions, 
covering  some  51,000  square  miles,  was  incorporated  in  1895  with 
Cape  Colony ;  the  region  to  the  north  as  far  as  the  Zambezi,  cover- 
ing 213,000  square  miles,  being  constituted  the  British  protec- 
torate of  Bechuanaland,  with  British  residents  and  a  strong  police 
force  to  patrol  the  country.  In  the  northern  part  of  this  area  the 
remarkable  chief  Khama  was  supreme,  and  it  was  only  after  long 
conferences  with  Warren  that  th.is  chief  at  last  agreed  to  accept 
protection.  In  this  district  the  only  rights  to  be  considered  were 
those  of  the  natives ;  there  was  little  difficulty  in  coming  to  an  un- 
derstanding as  to  the  claims  of  Germany.  It  was  a  question  of 
annexation  eitlier  by  Great  Britain  or  by  the  Transvaal,  and  in  this 
case  the  stronger  power  had  no  scruples  in  using  its  strength. 

The  wide  region  between  the  Orange  River  and  the  Zambezi 
is  one  in  which  British  missionary  effort  (we  need  only  mention 
the  .names  of  Moffat  and  Livingstone)  had  been  long  active  and 
fairly  successful,  and  with  which  English  traders  had  had  dealings 
for  many  years.  \\'hatever  views  may  be  held  as  to  mission  work 
in  the  abstract,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  practical  benefits 
secured  by  the  conversion  of  such  chiefs  as  Sechele  and  Khama 
from  the  ways  of  their  forefathers,  and,  in  the  case  of  Khama,  the 
change  is  generally  admitted  to  ha\e  been  a  vast  improvement.  At 
present,  however,  we  are  only  concerned  to  show  that  British  inllu- 
ence  was  already  j^aramount  here,  and  that  it  was  therefore  natural 
for  the  British  Go\ernment  to  prevent  a  Boer  annexation.  But  the 
truth  is,  as  will  have  been  seen  fmni  ])revi()us  cliapters,  that  by 
1885  all  considerations  for  wliat  arc  called  "native  rights"  had 
disappeared  before  the  blind  scramble.  It  was  in  the  nature  of 
things  that  Great  I'.rilain  should  try  to  make  up  for  the  loss  of 
Damaraland  bv  taking  all  that  she  could  lay  hands  u|)on  t«^  the 
north  of  Cape  Colony.     Iv.cn  before  1890  she  had  distinctly  given 


..1(3  AFRICA 

1868-1895 

it  to  be  invlors(<>(i(l.  ns  will  be  seen,  that  she  repfardcd  the  Zambezi 
as  the  natural  niTlhcrn  boinuiary  of  her  South  African  possessions, 
Tiiis  principle  was.  hinvever,  adopted  much  too  late  to  be  of  avail 
in  sccurinir  a  perfectly  united  British  South  Africa.  It  was  only  in 
iS/'>8  that  the  conception  seems  to  have  taken  shape:  and  by  that 
time  two  independent  i>oer  republics  had  been  established,  and  the 
idea  was  so  slow  in  takinj:^  r<>ot  that  so  late  as  1884  Germany  was 
allowed  to  cut  ofT  from  the  possibility  of  annexation  an  enormous 
M'H'k  on  the  west.  Basutoland.  it  is  true,  was  annexed  in  1868 
and  Gri(iuala;ul  West  in  1877:  but  from  that  time  till  1885,  with 
the  exception  of  the  fruitless  attempt  to  annex  the  Transvaal,  little 
ad\ance  was  made.  We  have  seen  the  important  measures  taken  in 
1SS4  and  1SS5  on  the  west  oT  the  Transvaal :  and  on  the  east  of  that 
rcjiublic  the  Piocrs  were  as  ea.cfcr  to  make  annexations  as  they  were 
in  the  we^t.  It  was  natural  that  the  Transvaal  should  endeavor  to 
obtain  an  independent  outlet  to  th  -  sea,  from  whicli  she  was  barred 
bv  Swaziland.  Tonj:]:aland.  and  Zululand — on  all  of  which  countries 
she  liad  her  eye  for  years.  In  1884  a  party  of  Boers  took  possession 
t>f  t!ic  western  part  of  Zululand,  and  established  an  independent 
slate,  the  Xew  Republic;  and  when  Zululand  was  in  1887  declared 
British  territory,  this  section  was  handed  over  to  the  Transvaal. 
Swaziland  also,  which  forms  an  indentation  on  the  east  of  the 
Transvaal,  had  lonj^  hcen  coveted  by  the  Boers:  by  the  Convention 
Ml  1800  it  was  placed  in  a  transition  state,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
ncj^^otiatimis  hctwccn  fh-eat  T.ritain  and  the  Transvaal  in  1893-1895, 
!l  was  made  over  in  J\'bru;iry.  1895,  to  the  latter,  with  certain  re- 
stricti"n<  as  to  tlie  rii^lits  of  tlie  natives  and  of  British  subjects.^ 
But  t!:e  B"cr  rej)ublics  were  effectually  prevented  from  acquiring 
any  scciion  of  the  coast. 

ThouL^^h  Germany  had  .[^ivcn  the  British  Government  a  ,c^eneral 
a>-r';:M!!cc  tliat  she  would  not  seek  any  fnrtlier  annexations  soutli  of 
I>)e!.i;;-a  Bay,  it  was  none  the  less  difficult  for  entcri)rising  Germans 
ill  -'■.ircli  I  if  fre-li  fields  to  rer-i-^t  temptation  so  long  as  any  portion 
of  tlie  great  area  south  of  the  Zambezi  was  unannexed.  Moreover, 
tliC  I'.'ier-,  e\er  (>n  tlic  lookout  for  new  lands  into  which  to  trek, 
had  !  :ig  ag  >  fixe,]  tiieir  eves  on  the  omitry  nortli  of  the  Bimpopo, 
knn/.  M  .i:e;iiT:i]!y  a>  M.ital.elelnnd.  ruled  .-vcr  by  Lnhengula,  with 
\v,i":ii,    .\;uii   tl:e   M.it.ibeles   were   in   their  old  home,    the    British 

'  ■'^^■''■'"  '':■•  1'"  T  ^V.••^  !t»  M.itM^  has  ii-.t  ]Kvn  (Icfmitcly  fixed.     It  is  ruled  by 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  217 

1870-1888 

Government  made  a  treaty  of  friendship  in  1836,  The  reports  of 
rich  gold  mines  contained  in  this  territory  were  well  known,  and,  as 
has  already  been  seen,  in  1870  Sir  John  Swinburne  formed  a  com- 
pany for  working-  the  Tati  region  in  the  southwest  of  Matabelc- 
land.  Other  travelers  and  sportsmen  gave  the  most  favorable  ac- 
counts, not  only  of  the  gold  of  the  country,  but  of  the  suitability  of 
a  large  portion  of  the  high  plateau  known  as  Mashonaland  for 
European  settlement  and  agricultural  operations.  When  Sir 
Charles  Warren  was  in  Bechuanaland  in  1885  several  of  his  officers 
made  journeys  to  Matabeleland,  and  their  reports  all  tended  to 
show  the  desirability  of  taking  possession  of  that  country;  indeed 
Sir  Charles  was  assured  that  Lobengula  would  welcome  a  British 
alliance  as  a  protection  against  the  Boers,  of  whose  designs  he  was 
afraid.  At  that  very  time  an  expedition  was  being  planned  in  the 
Transvaal  for  the  purpose  of  taking  possession  of  Mashonaland. 
One  correspondent,  writing  to  Sir  Charles  Warren,  in  May,  1885, 
described  the  situation  as  follows: 

"  The  Boers  are  determined  to  get  a  footing  in  Mashonaland 
(their  condition  being  so  wretched,  and  Mashonaland  being  the 
finest  agricultural  land  in  South  Africa),  by  thus  taking  the  Mata- 
bele  on  the  flank  and  gradually  acquiring  their  territory  by  con- 
quest, from  thence  overspreading  all  the  independent  tribes  to  the 
west  and  south  of  here.  I  also  had  good  proof  that  the  Germans 
and  Portuguese  are  working  quieth^  but  slowly  to  acquire  as  much 
of  these  lands  and  the  Transvaal  under  their  protectorate  as  occa- 
sion will  allow  of;  and  believe  that  they  as  well  as  the  Boers  and 
other  nations  are  only  waiting  to  hear  what  action  the  British  Gov- 
ernment will  take  to  settle  on  tlieir  own.  The  natives  all  showed 
the  greatest  desire  to  be  under  British  protectif^n,  chiefs  as  well  as 
their  subjects,  and  their  hatred  and  fear  of  the  Boers." 

In  1882  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Transvaal  to  induce 
Lobengula  to  sign  a  treaty,  but  the  chief  was  too  wily;  in  1888, 
however.  President  Kriiger  tried  to  make  out  that  sucli  a  treaty  had 
been  concluded.  I'ut  the  cdd  friendship  with  h'ngland  was  not  for- 
gotten, even  after  Loljcngula  succeeded  his  fatlier  in  1868.  As  the 
most  powerful  chief  north  of  tlie  TJmjjopo,  he  was  extremely 
jealous  of  interference,  altlumgh  he  had  recently  suffered  a  crush- 
ing defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Bechuanas. 

As  a  result  of  Warren's  mission  to  Bechuanaland.  and  of  the 
reports  furnished   by   the  agents   he  sent  into   Matabeleland,   the 


JJIS  Al'UlCA 

1887-1888 

nttiMitioii  of  advonfurcrs  and  prospectors  was  more  and  more 
drawn  toward  tlu-  l.iticr  coiititry.  The  Portug^ucsc  liad  been  dec 
trifled  inlf  acliviiy  l'\  tlie  events  of  the  past  two  years.  That  the 
attention  of  the  l>rili>h  (lovernment  was  directed  to  Mataheleland 
even  in  1887  is  evident  from  a  protest  in  August  of  tliat  year,  on 
t!ie  part  oi  \a'\\\  Sah'sbnry,  aj^ainst  an  olTicial  Portuguese  maj) 
claiming  a  section  <>f  tliat  country  as  within  the  Portuguese  sphere. 
Sahshurv  then  clearly  stated  tliat  no  pretensions  of  Portugal  to 
Mataheleland  C(nild  he  recogiiizetl,  and  that  the  Zambezi  should  be 
regarded  as  the  natural  northern  limit  of  Piritish  South  Africa. 
The  Prime  Minister  reminded  the  Portuguese  Government  that 
according  to  tlie  P>erlin  Act  no  claim  to  territory  in  Central  Africa 
could  he  allowed  that  was  not  supported  by  effective  occupation. 
The  i'ortuguese  Government  maintained,  and  with  justice,  that 
this  a()plied  nnly  to  the  C(\ast,  hut  Salisbury  stood  firmly  to  his  posi- 
tion. Portugal  appealed  to  her  long  historical  connection  with 
Central  Africa,  and  to  the  evidences  which  still  existed  of  previous 
occupatiun.  She  sent  hurried  expeditions  up  the  valleys  of  some 
of  t!ic  siiuthern  tributaries  of  the  Zambezi,  and  pointed  to  what  she 
maintained  were  ihe  ruins  of  old  forts  and  the  existence  of  orange 
trees  as  lAidciuc  nf  her  former  occupation  of  the  country.  Giving 
th.e  fullest  wciL^ht  to  all  that  the  Portuguese  themselves  have  been 
able  ti-  adduci'  in  favor  of  their  claims  to  a  trans-African  dominion 
and  to  the  ])' 'sscs^iun  of  Mashonaland,  it  is  impossible  to  admit  that 
tile:;-  <  )cciip;iti( -n  had  e\cr  been  effective  away  from  their  ports  on 
tile  CM.-i-t  and  one  or  tw(^  stations  on  the  river.  Their  country, 
inoi\-"\er.  was  on  the  verge  of  bankrujjtcy,  and  they  had  not  the 
resource^  wherewith  to  develop  the  enormous  area  claimed  by 
''H.-m.  1>.  iiave  allowed  Portugal  to  acquire  what  she  claimed  in 
A:r;ca  \\;i-  t  >  -hut  out  the  center  of  the  continent,  including  some 
"I  t'C  ni.-t  pi'.inising  regions  of  tropical  Africa,  from  all 
civili/;!ti'  iv.. 

Gerii!;,:;-.  P.^er-.  Portuguese,  were  all  ready  to  lay  their  hands 
on  li.e  C'  ;;ii;-y  cl.iinied  by  LMheiigula,  when  P.ngland  intervened 
and  to(;k  it  o;-.-  wf  tiieir  haiKl-.  P,y  the  end  of  1887  the  attemi)ts  of 
t:.e  I  ran-',  .i.-.I  !;.  er-  Im  ohi.iin  a  hold  (ner  Mataheleland  had  reached 
a  cr;-i-.  I:  heraiix-  evident  that  no  time  was  to  be  lost  if  England 
V.;;-  t-^  >en-.rf  lie  /.anibe/i  as  the  northern  limit  of  extension  of  her 
S'.iu.'i  Air;.:. II  ].■  --e  — i.,n-.  Loljciigiila  Iiini.-:elf  was  harassed  and 
anxiiai-.  .•.     ;      liie  ile-ig;i-   <  ,1   llie   Poei's  c>n  the  one  hand,  and  the 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  219 

1888 

doings  of  the  Portuguese  on  the  north  of  his  territory  on  the  other. 
In  the  Rev.  J.  Smitli  Moffat,  Assistant  Commissioner  in  Bechiiana- 
land,  England  had  a  trusty  agent  who  had  formerly  been  a  mission- 
ary for  many  years  in  Matabeleland,  and  had  great  influence  with 
Lobengula,  Under  the  circumstances  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
difificult  for  Moffat  to  persuade  the  king  to  put  an  end  to  his  troubles 
by  placing  himself  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  On  March 
21,  1 888,  Sir  Hercules  Robinson,  governor  of  Cape  Colony  and 
British  High  Commissioner  for  South  Africa,  was  able  to  inform 
the  home  government  that  on  February  ii  Lobengula  had  ap- 
pended his  mark  to  a  document  securing  to  England  supremacy  in 
Matabeleland  over  all  her  rivals.  This  brief  document  may  well 
be  quoted  here: 

"  The  chief  Lobengula,  ruler  of  the  tribe  known  as  the  Aman- 
debele,  together  with  the  Mashona  and  Makalaka,  tributaries  of  the 
same,  hereby  agrees  to  the  following  articles  and  conditions : 

"  That  peace  and  amity  shall  continue  forever  between  Her 
Britannic  Majesty,  her  subjects,  and  the  Amandebele  people;  and 
the  contracting  Chief  Lobengula  engages  to  use  his  utmost  endeav- 
ors to  prevent  any  rupture  of  the  same,  to  cause  the  strict  observ- 
ance of  the  treaty,  and  so  to  carry  out  the  spirit  of  the  treaty  of 
friendship  which  was  entered  into  between  his  late  father,  the  Chief 
Umsiligazi,  with  the  then  governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1836. 

"  It  is  hereby  further  agreed  by  Lobengula,  chief  in  and  over 
the  Amandebele  country,  with  its  dependencies  aforesaid,  on  behalf 
of  himself  and  people,  that  he  will  refrain  from  entering  into  any 
correspondence  or  treaty  with  any  foreign  state  or  power,  to 
sell,  alienate,  or  cede,  or  permit  or  countenance  any  sale,  aliena- 
tion, or  cession,  of  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  said  Amandebele 
country  under  his  chieftainship,  or  u])on  any  other  subject,  without 
the  previous  knowledge  and  sanction  of  Her  ]\Lajesty's  High  Com- 
missioner in  South  Africa. 

"  In  faith  of  which,  I,  Lobengula,  on  my  part,  have  herevv^ith 
set  my  hand  at  Gubulu\vay<j,  Amandehcleland,  the  ilth  day  of 
February,  and  of  Her  Majesty's  reign  the  iifty-first." 

To  this  important  d(;cument  was  appended  "  Lo  Bengula  X 
His  Mark,"  with  the  names  of  two  witnesses,  and  the  signature  of 
J.  S.  iVloffat,  as  .\ssist;i.nt  C"(jmnn"ssii>ner. 

Many  similar  so-sailed  "  treaties  "'  have  been  signed  by  Afri- 


uu.)  A  F  RICA 

■*  1888 

can  cliiefs  in  favor  oi  various  powers.  It  is  doubtful  wliethcr,  as  a 
rule,  these  chiefs  have  any  idea  whatever  of  the  significance  of  what 
they  are  doiiii;  l-oheniiula.  however,  like  Sechele  and  Khama  in 
Hechuan.daiul.  was.  thoii.qh  a  somewhat  savage  heathen,  a  man  of 
shrewdness  ar.d  intelligence,  (luile  alive  to  his  own  interests.  Still 
it  is  doubtful  if  he  realized  the  full  purport  of  the  treaty,  the  object 
of  whidi  was.  .'f  course,  to  sweep  Matabeleland  and  its  dependen- 
cies within  the  linn'ts  of  the  British  Empire.  However,  for  the 
moment  it  relievetl  him  from  any  apprehensions  of  interference  from 
I'm  vers  or  rortuguese.  and  secured  to  British  South  Africa  uninter- 
rupted access  to  the  Central  Zambezi,  and  the  opportunity  of  devel- 
i'l)ing  a  region  reported  to  be  rich  in  gold  and  in  agricultural  possi- 
bilities. 

The  publication  of  the  treaty  was,  as  might  be  expected,  fol- 
lowed by  reclamations  on  the  part  of  both  the  Transvaal  and  of 
Portugal.  Before  the  British  hold  was  firmly  established  over  the 
country  attemjjts  were  made  by  large  parties  of  Boers  to  trek  into 
Matabclcland.  not.  it  is  to  be  feared,  without  the  countenance  of  the 
gdvernment  of  the  republic.  Though  these  attempts  caused  anx- 
iety at  the  time,  tliey  never  resulted  in  action.  Individual  Boers  as 
well  as  individual  Englishmen  attempted  to  poison  the  mind  of 
Loljenguia  against  the  British.  But  the  king  remained  throughout 
faithful  to  his  engagements.  Indeed,  it  w\as  not  Lobengula  himself 
wh(j  gave  any  cause  for  anxiety  during  the  initial  stage  of  the  Eng- 
li-!i  (^ccujiation.  He  was  a  powerful  chief,  but  even  he  was  obliged 
tu  defer  tfj  the  wishes  of  iiis  indunas,  or  sub-chiefs,  and  his  army. 
1  lis  regiments.  c<jm[)osed  (^f  thousands  of  young  men,  eager  to  wash 
liieir  >j)ears  in  blood,  were  ditTicult  to  restrain;  they  were  hungering 
ti>  "  eat  up  "  all  the  white  men  in  the  country.  Had  it  not  been  for 
the  L'reate-t  tact  and  forbearance  on  the  part  of  the  British  represen- 
taii\(.--  who  visited  the  C(nnitry  in  tlie  early  days  of  the  treaty,  terri- 
ble •  lisa>ters  w^iuld  have  happened.  Lobengula  himself  kej)!  a  firm 
hauil  over  his  warriors,  but  even  he  was  at  times  apprehensive  that 
they  might  hur-t  out  beyond  all  control.  But  this  trying  initial 
1-e::  !  ji.i-i'l  without  (h-aster;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  treaty  was 
t!;ur'  ughly  (hMU^-cd  in  ])rescnce  of  the  three  chief  indunas,  and 
vva-  -:gi:ed  hy  Lohcngiila  in  their  j)resence. 

rorir.gal  w  a.^  not  n.  easy  to  deal  with  as  the  South  African 
lvepuhl:r.  Innnciliately  >>n  the  pnhhcation  (jf  the  treaty  she  advanced 
her  iAd  prctcn>:'.n-,  but  wa.-,  n(jt  bold  enough  to  intrfjduce  any  claim 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  221 

1888-1889 

over  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Matabeles.  Whatever  right  she 
may  have  had  to  the  country  was  completely  annulled  when  Loben- 
gula's  father  took  possession  of  it  by  force  of  arms.  But  she  main- 
tained that  Lobengula's  claim  to  include  the  country  on  the  east, 
occupied  by  the  conquered  Mashonas,  Makalakas,  and  other  tribes, 
was  invalid ;  that  these  territories  had  of  old  been  occupied  by  Por- 
tugal, and  that  in  fact  they  were  included  in  her  province  of  Sofala ; 
and  this  it  would  be  useless  to  deny.  From  the  first,  however,  Salis- 
bury took  up  a  firm  position,  and  while  admitting  his  readiness  to 
adjust  boundaries  at  a  suitable  time,  maintained  absolutely  that 
Mashonaland  was  subject  to  Lobengula,  and  therefore  within  the 
British  sphere  of  influence.  It  remained  of  course  to  be  decided 
what  territory  could  fairly  be  included  within  Mashonaland  and  the 
other  districts  claimed  by  Lobengula ;  but  the  vague  claims  put  for- 
ward by  the  Portuguese  could  only  be  met  with  a  firm  assertion  of 
the  rights  acquired  by  Great  Britain  under  treaty.  The  important 
point  was  as  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  territory  claimed  by 
Lobengula,  and  the  western  extension  of  effective  occupation  by 
Portugal.  What  complicated  the  problem  was  ignorance  of  the 
geography  of  Eastern  Mashonaland,  shown  not  only  by  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  also  by  Portugal,  though  the  latter,  according  to  her  own 
statements,  had  been  in  the  occupation  of  the  country  for  four  cen- 
turies. Lobengula  himself,  inspired  very  possibly  by  the  "  well- 
informed  "  Englishmen  who  were  flocking  about  his  "  court,"  had 
no  doubt  as  to  the  extent  of  his  own  possessions.  In  a  letter  from 
him,  dated  November  24,  1888,  he  claimed  the  whole  country  east- 
ward to  beyond  the  Sabi  River,  on  the  north  to  the  south  bank  of 
the  Zambezi  from  Tete  upward,  and  even  a  large  tract  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river.  The  letter  containing  these  claims  on  the  part  of 
the  king  was  brought  to  England  by  two  of  his  indunas,  who  were 
sent  by  him  in  the  beginning  of  1889,  in  order  to  see  with  their  own 
eyes  "  The  Great  White  Queen,"  who,  he  had  been  informed,  no 
longer  existed. 

No  sooner  was  the  treaty  signed  than  Lobengula  was  besieged 
for  concessions  of  land,  the  main  object  of  which  was  to  obtain 
the  gold  with  which  the  country  was  said  to  abound,  especially  in 
the  east,  in  Mashonaland.  The  king  was  per])lcxed;  hence  the 
embassy  to  England.  But  by  this  time,  tlie  first  half  of  the  year 
1889,  important  preliminary  steps  had  been  taken  toward  the  actual 
occupation  of  the  country  on  the  part  of  tlie  British. 


»W  A  F 11  T  C  A 

1888 

One  K.  A.  ATamul  played  an  important  part  in  influencing 
Lohcngula  to  place  his  trust  in  ICnglaud  and  iicr  ciuccn.  No  sooner 
was  the  treaty  made  known  in  luigland  than  he  was  engaged 
as  tlie  agent  oi  a  syniiicate  of  cajiitahsts  to  proceed  to  M.atahele- 
land  and  oudca\i)r  to  obtain  irom  Lobengula  a  concession  of  mining 
rights.  It  d(K\s  not  affect  the  vahchty  or  tlie  imperial  importance 
of  the  treaty  that  some  of  those  who  were  beiiind  it  had  had  their 
eyes  all  along  upon  the  desirability  of  procuring  mining  conces- 
sions in  Mashonaland  under  the  aegis  of  British  protection.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  would  seem  that  the  first  jx-rson  actually  to  make 
proposals  to  the  I'ritish  Government  on  the  subject  was  George 
Cawstmi.  member  of  a  financial  firm  in  the  City.  On  May  4,  1888, 
Cawston  wrote  to  the  Colonial  Ofiice,  "It  is  the  intention  of 
iuy>elf.  in  conjunction  with  others,  to  send  a  representative  to 
Matabeleland  to  negotiate  with  Lobengula  for  a  treaty  for  trading, 
mining,  and  general  purposes."  He  asked  if  they  could  reckon 
upon  the  support  of  the  British  Government  in  this  undertaking. 
Lord  Knutsford  rci)lied  that  the  British  Government  could  not  in- 
volve itself  in  mining  concessions,  and  the  same  intimation  was 
sent  to  Lubcngula.  with  the  caution  that  lie  must  look  out  for 
himself  in  these  matters.  At  the  same  time  Knutsford  stated  that 
in  order  to  be  regarded  as  valid,  .any  concession  obtained  nuist 
have  the  sanction  of  the  British  Commissioner  for  South  Africa. 
I-'urthcr  correspondence  t(xjk  j)lace  between  Cawston  and  bis  friends 
and  Knutsford,  with  the  result  that,  under  tlic  name  of  "  The 
1-^xploring  Company,"  a  syndicate  was  formed  for  tlic  purpose  of 
acf[uiring  imd  Vv forking  the  mining  wealth  of  Mashonaland.  But 
thougli  Ca\\st(^n  seems  to  ha\c  been  the  first  to  ajijiroach  the 
g"M\erniuenl  witli  a  definite  scheme,  and  although  he  lost  no  time 
in  -ending  rnu  Mannd  after  he  had  satisfied  the  Colonial  OtTice  as 
to  lii^  Company,  another  company  or  syndicate,  being  on  the  spot. 
Iiad  the  advantage  of  h.im.  The  moving  spirit  of  tliis  syndicate  was 
Cecil  J     Klwdes! 

Tlii>  man.  v^liosc  name  has  been  so  prcjminent  in  connection 
with  im])crial  scheme-^  north  and  south  of  the  Zambesi,  and  who 
in  i<^95  w.'i^  created  a  member  of  I  Icr  Majesty's  l'ri\y  Coun- 
cil, w.'K  1)1 'in  in  iS;;^  and  was  the  s<  m  of  an  iMiglish  clergyman. 
Lea\  ing  >(I;im.|  ;.t  liic  age  d  sixteen  he  was  compelled  to  go 
to  .'^outli  Airic.-i  (Ml  acconiU  of  his  health,  and  tliei"e  with  his 
bixlher  to,!,  tu  1  '.u'liiig      lie  was  in  the  early  ruih  to  Kimberley, 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  223 

1871-1889 

and  amassed  very  considerable  wealth  in  connection  with  diamond- 
mining.  Although  unable  to  attend  the  university  before  leaving 
for  Africa,  he  had  determination  enough  to  come  home  and  take 
his  degree  at  Oxford  after  a  residence  of  some  years  in  South 
Africa  had  restored  his  health.  He  was,  after  his  return,  connected 
with  the  organization  of  Bechuanaland  as  sub-commissioner,  and 
did  much  to  secure  that  territory  without  reduction  or  diminution 
for  England.  For  several  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Cape 
Parliament,  and  in  1890  became  Premier  of  the  colony.  The 
actions  and  utterances  of  Rhodes  in  later  years  showed  that  he 
was  not  actuated  simply  by  the  desire  to  accumulate  a  fortune; 
indeed,  the  impression  made  upon  those  who  knew  him  best  was 
that  he  was  indifferent  to  money  for  its  own  sake.  \\'hatever 
may  have  been  his  original  motives  for  seeking  to  secure  a  leading 
share  in  the  partition  of  Matabeleland,  his  aim  seems  rapidly  to 
have  developed  into  the  ambition  of  forming  a  great  South  African 
Confederation,  extending  far  into  the  heart  of  Africa,  and  joining 
hands  with  the  British  sphere  on  the  Upper  Xile.  His  conduct  not 
only  with  regard  to  ]\Iatabeleland,  but  also  in  connection  with  his 
attempt  to  federate  all  the  South  African  states,  to  acquire  Damara- 
land  from  Germany,  and  to  spread  British  suzerainty  over  the 
wdde  region  on  the  north  of  the  Zambezi,  can  only  be  adecjuately 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  he  was  actuated  by  some  such 
political  motive.  The  later  events  of  his  life  and  the  conditions 
of  his  w^ill  would  seem  to  indicate  a  still  wider  ambition,  namely, 
that  of  uniting — a  sort  of  culture-federation — the  great  Anglo- 
Saxon  communities  of  the  world.  At  all  events,  after  tlie  treaty 
had  been  ratified,  Rhodes,  himself  keeping  in  the  background,  lost 
no  time  in  acquiring  rights  over  l^obengula's  territory.  P>y  tlie 
time  Maund  reached  Matabeleland  he  found  tliat  tlie  king  had,  only 
a  few  days  previously,  granted  a  full  conccssiijn  of  all  mining  rights 
to  Messrs.  Rudd,  Alaguire.  and  Tliomjjson.  Tlie  cnnccssion  was 
obtained  on  behalf  of  the  Gc^ld  h'ields  of  Soutli  Africa  Coni])aiiy  and 
a  syndicate,  of  which  Messrs.  Rlmdcs,  Kudd,  and  I'cit  were  the 
principal  representatives.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if  there  would  be 
some  difficulty  in  reconciling  tlie  claims  of  this  com])aiiy  with  the 
rights  which  Maund  maintained  had  been  ])romised  to  him  pcv- 
sonally  by  Loljcngula,  and  wliicli  had  \)Qvu  taken  o\er  by  the  ICx- 
ploring  Company,  lint  Rliodes,  who  came  in  I'Jigkmd  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1889,  had  little  diriiculty  in  coming  to  an  understanding 


j>24i  AFRICA 

1889 

witli  the  Exploring:  Gunpany.  w  itli  the  result  that  the  two  interests 
were  amalK^ainatccJ.  The  Tati  Held  still  rcmaiiieil  in  the  hands  of 
Sir  John  Swiiihnriic  and  his  company,  though  little  apparently 
had  been  done  to  dcvch^i)  it.  There  were  still  earlier  concessions 
obtained  from  Lcbcngula  by  Haines,  which  hail  passed  into  other 
liands:  these  also  were  taken  over  by  Rhodes. 

To  attempt  to  enter  into  and  explain  all  the  intricacies  of  the 
complication  of  companies  and  sub-companies,  and  their  mutual 
relations,  which  have  interests  of  more  or  less  importance  in  Mata- 
beleland,  wouUl  i)e  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work.  There  were 
various  changes  and  modifications:  the  principal  companies  uniting 
as  tlie  Central  Search  Association,  and  that  again  developing  into 
the  I'niteil  Concessions  Company.  However,  these  interests,  with 
the  rights  of  the  Exploring  Company,  were  concentrated  in  the 
company  which  early  in  1889  took  measures  to  obtain  a  charter 
for  the  development  and  administration  of  the  country.  In  April 
of  that  year  the  two  leading  companies  approached  Lord  Knutsford 
Vviih  a  view  to  obtain  a  charter  for  the  territories  claimed  by  them. 
After  protracted  negotiations,  in  which  Rhodes  w^as  the  most  promi- 
nent representative  of  the  interested  companies,  the  charter  sought 
for  was  granted  by  the  queen  on  October  15,  1889. 

Tiie  principal  field  of  the  operations  of  the  British  South 
Africa  Company  was  defined  in  the  charter  to  be  "  the  region  of 
South  Africa  lying  immediately  to  the  north  of  British  Bechuana- 
land,  and  to  tlie  north  and  west  of  the  South  African  Republic, 
and  to  the  west  of  the  Portuguese  dominions."  The  company 
was  also  empowered  to  acquire  any  further  concessions,  if  approved 
of  by  ilic  Secretary  of  State.  All  the  usual  provisions  of  such 
charters  were  included  in  the  present  one.  and  tlie  company  was 
virtually  autliorized,  not  only  to  develop,  but  to  administer  the 
countries  lor  which  they  had  obtained  concessions,  subject  always 
to  ilie  apjjroval  of  the  abo\-e-nienlioned  secretary.  In  short,  the 
company  was  cmpDwcied  to  act  as  the  representative  of  the  im- 
pcn:il  gi)\  crnnKiit,  wiilinut,  however,  obtaining  any  assistance  from 
i:;e  go\(jniuanl  \<  >  bear  tl:e  exj^ense  of  the  administration.  On 
the  c(.'n:ra;y.  iiie  c(;ii]]);;ny  made  a  handsome  contribution  toward 
the  comjileii'.n  of  the  telegra])])  line  into  the  Bechuanaland  protec- 
torate, and  comj)]ctf'd  tlie  railway  from  Kimberley  to  Vryburg. 
1  he  l\:nibcrlcy-Vi\l)i;rg  section  was  taken  cner  by  the  Cape  Gov- 
crnniciil  after  iis  coiiiplcliun  by  tlic  Chartered  Company. 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  225 

1889 

The  capital  of  the  company  was  five  million,  since  increased 
to  twenty-five  million,  dollars.  It  is  not  easy  to  define  the  relations 
of  the  Chartered  Company  to  the  various  other  companies  which 
had  mining  interests  in  the  country.  In  itself  it  was  not  a  consolida- 
tion of  the  interests  of  those  companies.  Its  functions  were  to  ad- 
minister the  country  and  to  work  the  concessions  on  behalf  of  the 
concessionaires,  in  return  for  which  it  was  to  retain  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  profits.  The  concessionaires  guaranteed  $3,500,000  of  tl:;- 
Chartered  Company's  capital.  The  position  was  a  curious  and 
anomalous  one,  leading  to  misunderstanding,  so  that  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  very  soon  an  attempt  was  made  really  to  combine  the 
whole  interests  in  the  country  in  the  Chartered  Company.  Here 
again  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  Bechuanaland  section  of  the 
region  included  in  the  charter  has,  for  the  present,  been  placed 
under  the  administration  of  the  governor  of  British  Bechuanaland, 
so  that  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi  the  operations  of  the  company 
were  in  the  meantime  confined  to  Matabeleland  and  the  other 
countries  claimed  by  Lobengula. 

All  this  activity  on  the  part  of  England  naturally  embittered 
Portugal  more  and  more.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1889 
Colonel  Pavia  d'Andrade,  an  able  officer  who  had  been  connected 
with  the  Sofala  district,  and  had  done  much  good  exploring  work 
therein,  was  making  his  way  up  the  valleys  of  the  Mazoe  and 
other  tributaries  of  the  Zambezi,  distributing  Portuguese  flags 
among  the  natives,  and  endeavoring,  too  late,  to  establish  a  sem- 
blance of  "  effective  occupation."  Tlie  Portuguese  Government, 
moreover,  created  a  new  district  of  Zumbo,  on  tlie  south  of  the 
Zambezi,  which  embraced  some  30,000  square  miles  of  the  territory 
claimed  by  Lobengula  as  within  his  dominions.  It  is  only  fair  to 
Colonel  d'Andrade  to  state  that  his  efforts  to  extend  Portuguese 
influence  and  develop  the  resources  of  the  country  claimed  by  Por- 
tugal on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi  date  back  quite  ten  years  before 
Lobengula  signed  his  treaty.  It  may  enable  us  to  understand  the 
position  of  Portugal  in  tlie  country  to  the  east  of  Mashonaland,  it 
it  be  remembered  that  so  long  ago  as  1878  ]:)'Andra(le  obtained  what 
was  known  as  the  Paiva  d'Andrade  concession,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  exploit  the  rcs;)urces  and  especially  the  gold  of  the  region 
known  as  Manika.  Next  year  this  was  transferred  to  the  Socictc 
Gcncrale  dii  Zamhcr.e  of  Paris,  which  sent  out  a  large  cominissi(jn 
of  experts  under  D'Andrade  to  report  on  the  country.     Idie  I^aris 


-22G  A  F  R  1  ('  A 

1888-1889 

C'lnp.inv  (lid  iK^t  oMisidcr  the  repeats  of  tlicse  experts  sufficiently 
ciicc'iirajj^iiig-.  and  they  declined  to  i^o  further  in  the  matter.  D'An- 
dradc  then  tried  to  ohtain  cajjilal  in  London,  and  succeeded  in 
forniiiiiT  the  Companhia  Africana  and  the  Ophir  Company.  Spas- 
modic attempts  were  made  under  these  companies  to  work  the  old 
mines  of  part  of  Manika. 

In  iSSS  the  rii^'hts  of  these  companies  were  made  over  under 
certain  conditions  to  the  Mozambique  Company,  which  was  author- 
ized to  undertake  a  great  variety  of  enterprises,  and  which  to  some 
extent  resemliled  in  its  objects  the  British  Chartered  Company, 
although  it  docs  not  seem  to  have  been  accorded  any  powers  of 
administration.  A  good  deal  of  English  capital  was  embarked  in 
this  company,  and  its  agents  were  set  to  find  and  work  the  gold 
rejjorted  to  abound  in  the  Manika  interior,  on  the  eastern  slopes 
of  what  may  be  generally  regarded  as  the  Alashonaland  plateau. 
The  most  potent  chief  in  this  regii^n  persistently  refused  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  Portuguese  or  any  other  whites.  He  had 
bct^n  succeeded  by  his  son,  with  whom  the  Portuguese  maintained 
they  had  made  a  treaty  of  protection,  though  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  vacillating  chief  showed  himself  ready  to  make  treaties  with 
anyone  prepared  to  supply  him  with  unlimited  alcohol.  Unfortu- 
nately for  Portugal,  the  energetic  D'Andrade  was  not  supported  as 
he  deserved  to  be  in  his  attempts  to  extend  Portuguese  influence  and 
develop  the  East  African  possessions.  All  Portugal  did  was  to 
grant  enormous  areas,  under  the  title  of  "  Pra::os  dc  Corona,"  or 
Crown  farms,  to  persons,  mainly  half-castes — most  of  whom  were 
independent  of  the  government,  and  differed  little  from  slave-hold- 
ing, slave-trading  native  chiefs.  In  the  Manika  territory  the  most 
])owcrful  of  tlic.-c  half-castes  was  Dc  Souza,  known  as  Gouveia, 
from  his  place  of  residence.  He  could  command  from  7000  to 
8000  native  irregulars;  with  the  assistance  of  these  Portugal  had 
been  carrying  on  niilitarv  r»]icrations  along  tlie  Zambezi  and  in 
the  Manika  district.  In  iSSS  and  1S89  considerable  activity  was 
disiilayed  in  bringin;,^  out  steaiucrs  and  ammunition. 

'Huis  it  will  be  seen  that  when  the  Pritish  South  Africa  Com- 
pany was  prc])are'l  to  enter  into  active  occupation  of  the  territories 
which  they  were  authorized  to  exjjloit,  they  had  on  the  one  hand 
the  bands  ai  Lobcngula  eagei"  to  wash  their  spears  in  white  blcjod, 
'  n  the  south  tlic  Hoers  of  the  'iVansvaal,  embittered  at  being"  pre- 
\cntcd  from  trekking  to  the  north  of  the  Limpopo,  and  on  the  east 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  227 

1889-1890 

and  the  northeast  the  Portuguese  trying-  to  raise  a  wall  of  claims 
and  historical  pretensions.  All  the  time  the  Lisbon  Foreign  Office 
was  besieging  the  Colonial  Office  with  an  incessant  discharge  of 
correspondence  and  reclamations,  which  it  need  hardly  be  said  made 
but  little  impression. 

The  relation  of  the  British  Government  to  the  Chartered  Com- 
pany and  its  sphere  is  very  clearly  stated  in  a  communication  from 
Lord  Knutsford  to  the  High  Commissioner  shortly  after  the  charter 
was  granted.  "  The  queen  can,  of  course,  at  any  time  annex  or 
declare  a  protectorate  over  any  part  of  the  territory  within  which 
the  company  operates,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  paramount  neces- 
sity for  such  annexation  or  protectorate,  or  of  the  failure  or  mis- 
conduct of  the  company,  security  of  tenure  is  granted  to  the  com- 
pany for  the  limited  period  of  twenty-five  years,  which  is  deemed 
by  Her  Majesty's  government  the  shortest  period  within  which 
the  company  can  be  expected  to  develop  and  perfect  the  public  part 
of  its  enterprise;  while  there  is  reserved  to  the  government  of 
the  day,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  and  at  every  succeeding  period 
of  ten  years,  the  right  of  considering,  in  the  interests  of  the  empire 
generally,  and  of  South  Africa  in  particular,  how  far  the  adminis- 
trative and  public  power  of  the  company  should  be  continued." 

At  the  same  time  Lord  Knutsford  wrote  to  Lobengula  in 
the  queen's  name,  explaining  clearly  the  significance  of  the  cliarter, 
and  strongly  urging  him  to  deal  only  with  the  company  and  refrain 
from  making  grants  of  land  to  private  adventurers.  The  total  area 
of  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland,  which  formed  tlie  main  sphere 
of  the  company,  is  about  144,000  scjuare  miles,  with  a  nati\-e  popu- 
lation estimated  at  515,000.  It  is  in  the  main  a  high  tal)leland, 
rising  in  the  Mashona  country  to  5000  and  6000  feet,  on  the  whole 
well  watered,  and  with  a  considerable  area  said  by  those  familiar 
with  it  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  agriculture  and  even  to  European 
colonization.  Over  much  of  it  cattle-raising  may  be  carried  on  to 
a  practically  unlimited  extent.  As  in  all  parts  of  tr()])ical  Africa,  tlie 
low-lying  lands  are  unhcaltliful;  but  on  the  higher  plateaus,  even 
during  the  rainy  season,  Europeans  may  with  reasonable  care  pre- 
serve their  health.  The  general  impression  produced  by  the  reports 
of  those  who  have  visited  and  lived  in  the  country  is  that  Matabele- 
land and  its  depenrlcncies  constitute  a  region  excc))tionally  favor- 
able, considering  its  latitude,  to  development  by  l^uropean  effort. 
As  to  its  gold  resources,  the  most  glowing  accounts  were  given  and 


008  AFRICA 

1890 

the  most  extravagfant  hopes;  entertained:  inspired  by  such  concep- 
tions of  this  Land  of  Promise,  early  in  the  summer  of  1890,  the  first 
pioneer  expedition  set  out  to  take  possession. 

W'itli  respect  to  its  base  of  operations,  the  British  South  Africa 
Company,  it  mav  be  remarked.  \vas  much  more  favorably  situated 
than  cither  of  its  sister  companies  in  East  and  West  Africa.  Brit- 
isli  F.ast  and  West  Africa  are  both  tropical  without  mitigation. 
Th.cv  have  imiIv  the  coast  as  a  base-line,  with  savages  and  an  un- 
subdued nvadless  country  to  deal  with  from  the  begituu'ng.  The 
SiHith  Africa  Coiupany.  on  the  otiier  hand,  had  a  long-settled,  tem- 
perate colony  to  start  from,  with  half  a  luillion  of  white  population, 
railwavs,  telegraphs,  and  other  resources  of  civilization  to  form 
a  base  of  operations,  and  fall  back  upon  if  needful.  There  was  no 
ditliculty  then  in  collecting  a  special  police  force  of  500  men  and 
a  band  of  200  pioneers.  After  the  rainy  season  the  body  of  700 
adventurers  marched  northward  to  take  possession  of  the  latest  ad- 
dition to  the  empire.  The  pioneers  were  men  provided  by  con- 
tract. 

Frederick  Selous.  who  knew  the  country  better  than  any  other 
white  man,  took  the  lead  in  making  a  road  from  the  Macloutsie 
River,  which  formed  the  real  starting-point,  northeast  and  north 
over  the  gradually  rising  plateau  to  Mount  Hampden.  400  miles 
nearer  the  Zambezi,  which  it  was  resolved  to  make  the  objective 
oi  tlie  expedition.  Lobengula  gave  his  consent  to  the  expedition, 
the  only  stii)ulation  being  that  a  route  should  be  chosen  well  to 
the  cast  of  Matal)e]eland  proper,  so  as  to  avoid  all  risk  of  collision 
with  tl:e  thousands  of  young  warriors  scattered  in  kraals  all  over 
the  chief's  dominions.  It  was  cxticcted  that  an  attempt  would 
be  made  by  th.ese  to  attack  tlie  Ih-itish  force  as  it  made  its 
way  r.'~rthward :  but  :is  a  matter  of  fact  no  difliculties  what- 
c\er  v.cre  experienced  in  t'lis  respect.  A  start  was  made  from 
t::e  M;ic''n::-io  River  on  Jr.ne  25.  1890,  and  by  September  u 
M'  riHt  Ilanipcicn  was  reached.  A  road,  necessarily  rough,  was 
niade  n  t'-.e  march  nortr.v.ard :  forts  were  built  at  certain  inter- 
vals. r--iia'.;  garri-'  ns  placed  in  tliem.  and  every  precautinn  taken  to 
rcTv'it-r  t.-.e  ■  ccv.pati on  effective.  The  ]ieadr[uartcrs  were  formed 
c!  .-e  I  I  Ah  r.nt  Il'mp'lc:''..  wlicrc  I-"ort  Salisbury  was  l.)uilt.  and  there 
;:i  a  remarkably  -hiTt  time  a  town  grew  up,  with  its  public  Iniild- 
:r.g--".  c;. virch.es.  -clu^ols.  liotels.  lawyers,  and  land-agents,  stores  and 
'■'  -    "     "    ■  '  ■  ■  ■      r"xcour-c.  and.  on  an  elementarv  scale,  all  the 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  229 

1890-1892 

Other  institutions  which  are  characteristic  of  the  s^oci^il  and  public 
life  of  any  body  of  Englishmen. 

Of  course  the  pioneer  expedition  to  ocajpy  Mashonaland  was 
not  unattended  by  blunders  and  mistakes ;  but  v.htn  every  deduction 
is  made,  the  story  of  the  expedition  deserves  to  \jt  remembered  as 
a  memorable  episode  in  connection  with  the  exj/insion  of  the  British 
Empire.  When  the  goal  was  reached  the  p'or.eer  force  v.as  dis- 
banded, as  had  previously  been  arranged.  To  ei.:h  man  were  al- 
lotted a  considerable  area  of  ground  and  rights  over  a  certain  portion 
of  the  gold  reefs  which  he  might  be  so  :or:o,r.i:e  as  to  discover. 
These  disbanded  pioneers  immediately  began  pr:socct:r.g  in  all  di- 
rections in  search  of  gold,  and  taking  stock  of  toe  capacity  of  the 
country  for  settlement  and  agricuitura]  de-.e! torr.ent.  E-Jt  there 
was  not  much  time  before  the  rainy  season  Ccrr.i  upon  them ;  and 
the  rainy  season  of  1 890-1 891  is  one  to  be  rerr.entbfcred  in  the  histon,- 
of  Rhodesia.  At  any  time  this  season  is  trying  entugh.  and  de- 
mands on  the  part  of  the  white  man  rational  precautions  to  preserve 
his  health  and  avoid  disaster;  but  this  vras  an  exceptional  year. 
and,  as  usual,  someone  had  blundered.  The  p::neer  force  had  been 
wretchedly  provided  both  with  food  and  v.ith  medicines :  the  supphes 
which  were  to  have  follo\ved  the  force  v.ere.  through  som^e  mis- 
understanding, stopped.  The  result  v.-as  v.icespread  s-:itering  and 
many  deaths.  Still,  with  indcmitable  pluck  the  majority  of  the 
men  made  the  best  of  their  situaticn.  But  the  nev.-s  of  their  suf- 
ferings, combined  v."ith  the  damaging  reports  sent  home  by  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill,  who  ntade  an  expeditivn  to  the  country  after 
the  rainy  season,  the  conduct  of  the  r'':>rtuguese.  and  other  circum- 
stances, all  tended  to  give  the  nev,-  territory  a  bad  name  v.oticit  '.t 
did  not  deserve.  But  all  these  things  did  net  damp  the  ardor  either 
of  the  pioneers  or  of  the  cintpony.  The  raih.vay  v.-as  carried  from 
Kimberley  to  A'ryburg.  150  miles.  An  Englislt  c:n:pany  v,-a5  later 
formed  by  the  Chartered  Company  ij  extend  to.e  line  of  railway 
north  from  Vryburg.  Early  in  1S02  the  telegraph  vras  c:n:inued 
to  Salisbury,  which  was  then  brough:  y.'r.j  cirect  communication 
with  London.  Since  then  it  has  been  carried  rn  I'j  Lmtali  and 
Beira.  in  accordance  v,ot;^  R'lcdes"  scheme  tj  c instruct  a  telegrapn 
line  "from  the  Cape  ::•  Ci.-.r:,"  or  at  lea^t  to  L  ganda.  f:r  v/hich 
an  African  Trans-Continental  Telegraph  CL;mpany  v/as  formed  in 
December,  1893.  A  line  ir_m  Z  nila  and  Blantyre  in  the  Xy:..;: 
res:ion   has  been   carried   -'jutii   to  nicci   ine   line   itjUI   Sa.i-Oury. 


230  AFRICA 

1892-1895 

'riicie  were,  in  i(K)2,  1405  miles  of  line.  Before  the  end  of  1S95, 
liuoULjh  liic  cncri^v  of  RIuhIcs,  what  was  only  a  few  years  ago  the 
unknown  iicarl  of  savage  Africa  was  brought  into  almost  instan- 
taneous communication  with  l^urope.  Salisbury  increased  in  size, 
new  towns  were  begun  elsewhere,  a  regular  postal  and  telegraph 
service,  yielding  a  considerable  revenue  to  the  company,  was  estab- 
li>!icd.  and  l.obongula  was  at  last  induced  to  give  the  company 
rii'lits  over  the  land  as  well  as  the  mines.     The  result  was  that 


Cap^  cf  Good  fiT 


OUTH     ATRICA. 


Cape  and  Transvaal  farmers  took  up  large  areas  of  ground  for 
agriculinral  and  cattle  farms.  Other  sources  of  revenue  for  the 
C"ni])any  liaxe  been  mining  and  trading  licenses,  and  standdiold- 
ing-.  Ihit  .-till  tlicre  has  been  very  great  outlay,  and  not  much 
I-  .uld  lie  dune  I'nr  ilie  real  develoi)meiU  of  tlie  country  until  rapid 
.■'.nil  clieaj)  C' ■inmunications  were  established  with  the  outside  world, 
i'.nl  li;:-  v. a-  xealou-Iy  ])U,>]ied  forward,  'i'he  railway  now  extends 
from  C:i\,c  Town  to  P>eira  and  will  soon  be  extended  to  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, lleiny  M.  Stanley  is  on  record  as  believing  that  the 
(  ape  to  Cairo  railroad  will  be  an  accomplished  fact  before  1925. 

Iia\e  been  exj)ected.  the  action  of  the  pioneer  force 
'vith  jeal  lis  and  resentful  eyes  i)y  Portugal.  An 
aLrreeincn:  \,a.-,  conc'r.ilcl  between  I'ngland  and  Portugal  in  .August, 
i.'^i^',  by  \\.;;l1i  li.e  ea.-tern  limits  of  tlie  .Sijuth  .Africa  Company's 


was    \'. atci.e 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  231 

1890 

claims  were  fixed,  and  the  course  of  the  unknown  Sabi  River,  from 
north  to  south,  was  taken  as  a  boundary.  But  this  did  not  satisfy 
either  Portugal  or  the  company,  and  the  treaty  was  never  ratified. 
It  was,  however,  taken  as  the  basis  of  a  modus  invendi,  pending 
further  negotiations.  In  the  meantime  D'Andrade,  Gouveia,  and 
one  or  two  other  Portuguese  officers  had  returned  to  iManika,  and 
made  their  way  up  to  the  edge  of  the  plateau. 

The  abortive  treaty  referred  to  above  was  not  actually  accepted 
as  the  basis  of  a  modus  vivcndi  till  November,  1890.  Archi- 
bald R.  Colquhoun,  who  had  done  good  service  in  India  and  the 
East,  had  been  appointed  administrator  of  the  British  company's 
territory.  He  was  succeeded  by  an  intimate  friend  of  Rhodes,  Dr. 
Leander  S.  Jameson,  who  had  given  up  a  lucrative  practice  at  Kim- 
berley  to  accompany  the  pioneers;  Selous  was  another  on  the 
administrative  staff.  In  the  previous  September  Colquhoun, 
with  a  few  companions,  went  down  to  Alutassa's  Kraal,  in  the 
Manika  country,  and  without  difficulty  induced  him  to  conclude  a 
treaty  making  over  his  country  to  British  protection.  IMeantime 
D'Andrade,  Gouveia,  Rezende  (representing  the  ]*vIozambique 
company)  and  one  or  two  others,  with  an  armed  force  of 
Gouveia's  men,  were  on  their  way  to  Mutassa's.  Colquhoun 
resolved  to  take  decisive  measures.  A  small  force  was  sent  over 
under  Major  Forbes,  who  on  arriving  at  ]\Iutassa's  found  the 
village  occupied  by  tlie  Portuguese.  Notwithstanding  his  greatly 
inferior  force,  he  made  his  way  into  tlie  village  and  arrested  D'An- 
drade, Gouveia,  and  Rezende.  Tlie  two  former  were  taken  pris- 
oners to  Fort  Salisbury,  and  tlie  latter  alknved  to  return  to  Massi 
Kessi,  which  was  provisionally  occupied  by  a  small  force  of  the 
company's  police.     D'Andrade  and  Gouveia  were  sent  to  the  Cape. 

This  incident  caused  great  excitement  at  the  time,  and  gave 
rise  to  very  bitter  feelings  in  Portugal  against  England.  A  band 
of  student  volunteers  was  raised  in  Lisbon,  and  amid  patriotic  dem- 
onstrations was  hurriedly  sent  out  to  the  mouth  of  the  Pungwe, 
with  the  apparent  intention  of  marching  up  to  Manika  and  driving 
out  the  British.  Needless  to  say.  few  of  them  left  the  coast.  Ob- 
viously these  relations  between  the  t\\o  countries  could  not  long 
continue;  they  were  brc night  to  an  end  l)y  the  ratification  of  a  new 
agreement,  signed  on  June  ti,  iN(;i,  under  wliich  Porlgnal  can 
hardly  l^c  said  to  lia\e  fared  so  well  as  she  would  ha\e  done  under 
the  one  repudiated  by  the  Cortes  in  the  [)re\'ioib-  \-ear.     'i'he  boun- 


2B2  AFRICA 

1891-1892 

tliiry  t-»ct\vccn  the  F.ritisli  OMiipnny's  territories  was  drawn  farther 
oast  than  in  the  provicuis  treaty.  Ahhough  ("lun.tjiniyaiia,  Kinj^  of 
(Kizalaml.  sent  two  envoys  to  England  in  the  summer  of  1891,  to 
otTer  his  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  Lord  Salishury  was  firm,  and 
ileclined  to  take  him  nnder  British  protection,  except  as  to  that 
portion  which  is.  according  to  the  Anglo-Portuguese  agreement, 
within  the  British  sphere. 

There  is  nt>  doubt  that  by  the  new  treaty  the  company  added 
considerably  to  its  gold-producing  territory.  Further,  according 
to  the  terms  of  the  arrangement,  the  navigation  of  the  Zambezi 
and  the  Shire  was  declared  free  to  all  nations.  A  maximum  duty 
of  three  per  cent,  was  all  that  Portugal  was  allowed  to  charge,  for 
a  period  of  twcnty-fTve  years,  for  goods  in  transit  from  the  cast 
coast  to  the  company's  territories.  Other  mutual  privileges  were 
granted,  and  Portugal  agreed  to  undertake  the  construction  of  a 
railway  fi"oiu  the  mouth  of  the  Pungwe  to  the  plateau,  but  under  con- 
ditions which  would  prevent  her  delaying  the  undertaking  for  an 
indefinite  period.  There  were  delays  and  difficulties  in  carrying  out 
the  scheme,  the  accomplishment  of  which  was  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  development  of  ]\Iashonaland,  so  that  it  was  not  till  1892 
tliat  the  railway  was  actually  begun,  some  seventy  miles  being  fin- 
ished in  a  short  time.  The  railway  was  carried  well  through  the 
C'umtry  infected  by  the  tsetse  fly."  Although  the  gauge  adopted 
was  narrow  and  the  construction  light,  and  although  the  embank- 
ments were  scj  low  that  damage  is  done  near  the  coast  when  the 
CMiintry  is  flooded,  the  line  was  reported  to  be  good  and  serviceable 
and  likely  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  traffic  for  some  time. 

The  main  dilYiculties  seemed  thus  to  have  been  overcome,  and 
by  the  summer  of  1892  the  company  was  in  undoubted  possession 
of  its  territory,  though  to  a  large  extent  paral3-zed  from  want  of 
a  rapid  and  cheap  means  of  communication  with  the  outer  world. 
Ahhougli  care  was  taken  from  the  first  to  avoid  collisions  with 
the  Matahclc,  their  repeated  forays  against  tlie  Mashonas,  who 
are  under  the  company's  protection,  culminated  on  July  18,  1893, 
in  a  raid  such  as  could  nr)t  be  overlooked.  While  efforts  were 
made  to  obtain  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty,  preparation  for 
any  furtp.cr  im-^ijlities  which  niight  be  forced  on  the  company  was 

-  Tln\  is  an  in  < ct  whose  bile  is  f.'ifal  to  cattle,  and  injurious  even  to  Iinrscs 
an']  'luL's.  Kccciit  1  v''k:ii'c  str- iiij^-^ly  incliiu/s  to  prove  it  the  cause  of  a  certain 
I'Kal  f!i-ea-c  hi  the  negroes,  called  the  sleeping  sickness. 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  233 

1893-1894 

not  neglected,  and  the  High  Commissioner  authorized  the  com- 
pany's administrator,  Dr.  Jameson,  to  take  all  necessary  steps  to 
provide  for  the  safety  of  the  settlers.  In  the  beginning  of  October 
the  Matabele  attacked  the  company's  police  force  near  Victoria, 
and  the  Bechuanaland  border  police;  and  on  October  6  the  com- 
pany's force  of  about  620  men  advanced  westward  from  Charter 
and  Victoria,  while  other  forces,  consisting  of  the  Bechuanaland 
border  police,  the  company's  police,  and  natives  under  Khama, 
advanced  from  the  south  toward  Buluwayo.  After  a  difficult  march 
and  several  battles,  the  power  of  Lobengula  was  broken,  and  he 
fled  with  the  remainder  of  his  troops.  On  November  2  the  com- 
pany's forces  entered  Buluwayo  without  opposition,  and  since  then 
a  new  town  has  been  rapidly  springing  up,  and  Buluwayo  in  the 
west  threatens  to  rival  Salisbury  in  the  east  as  a  center  of  activity ; 
the  former,  like  the  latter,  has  already  its  newspapers,  hotels,  races, 
churches,  and  other  institutions  indispensable  to  the  settled  Briton. 
In  the  beginning  of  1894  Lobengula  died,  and  the  company  entered 
into  full  possession  of  his  territories.  No  doubt  such  a  collision  was 
inevitable  sooner  or  later,  and  the  company  were  not  sorry  that 
an  excuse  for  action  occurred  so  soon.  All  these  operations  were 
accomplished  without  any  aid  from  imperial  troops  or  imperial 
money.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  home  government  to  inter- 
fere too  largely  in  the  settlement  of  Matabeleland  was  resented  in 
South  Africa.  The  result  has  been  that  the  Imperial  government 
retained  but  a  slender  hold  over  the  company's  territories,  which 
will  be  ultimately  absorbed  in  the  South  Africa  Confederation  that 
seems  inevitable.  An  attempt,  however,  on  the  part  of  Rhodes  to 
fix  a  tariff  in  favor  of  British  goods,  including  the  company's  ter- 
ritories in  the  South  African  Customs  Union,  was  vetoed  by  the 
home  government.  The  success,  not  only  of  the  short  campaign, 
but  of  the  country  generally,  was  admitted  to  be  largely  due  to 
the  administrative  capability  of  Rhodes'  right-hand  man,  Dr. 
Jameson. 

The  final,  or  at  least  provisional,  settlement  of  Matabeleland 
was  effected  in  an  agreement  between  tlie  home  government  and 
the  British  South  Africa  Company,  dated  May  9.  1894.  Probably 
such  an  agreement  is  unicjue  in  the  history  of  the  British  Empire. 
It  was  a  mark  of  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  ten  years 
since  the  scramble  for  Africa  began,  that  instead  of  the  home  gov- 
ernment dictating  terms  to  a  chartered  company  for  a  territory 


«i;Ji  A  1'  R  I  C:  A 

1891-1894 

tliat  was  not  even  a  Cnnvn  colony,  the  company  should  be  dealt 
with  as  if  it  wtMC  an  independent  ])ower.  practically  insisting  on  its 
cnvn  terms.  The  fust  clause  deiines  the  territory  over  Nvhich  the 
operations  of  the  company  may  extend,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
includes  much  more  than  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland.  The 
territories  referrcil  to  in  the  memorandum,  are  "  those  parts  of 
South  Africa  houndetl  by  British  Bechuanaland,  the  German  pro- 
tectorate, the  Rivers  Chobe  and  Zambezi,  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions, and  the  South  African  Republic."  The  administration  of 
this  territory  is  to  be  conducted  by  the  company  in  accordance  with 
its  charter,  autl  under  an  administrator  and  a  council  of  four,  com- 
poseil  of  a  judge  and  three  other  members.  The  administrator  is 
api)i limed  l)y  the  company,  of  course  with  the  approval  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Slate,  who  is,  nominally  at  least,  supreme  over  the  w'hole 
administration.  The  administrator  holds  his  ofifice  for  three  years, 
but  may  be  reappointed.  The  four  members  of  the  council  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  ciMupany,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  State. 
The  judge  can  be  removed  only  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  while  the 
otlicr  three  members  are  at  the  mercy  of  the  company.  One  of  the 
three  retires  every  two  years,  l)ut  may  be  reappointed.  The  company 
pays  tlie  salaries  of  the  administrators  and  all  other  officials.  Provi- 
sions are  made  for  subordinate  magistrates,  for  a  land  commission, 
f<  >r  1(  icaiing  natives  on  land  adequate  for  their  maintenance,  and  vari- 
ous others  connected  with  administration  and  the  development  of  the 
terriluries,  in  all  of  which  t!ie  company  are  virtually  supreme,  so 
long  as  notliing  is  done  "to  diminish  or  detract  from  the  powers 
C(  nfcrrcd  l)y  Her  Majesty's  Order  in  Council  of  ]\Iay  9,  1891,  or 
by  tlie  charter  incorporating  the  comi)any."  An  order  made  by 
the  SfAcreign  in  Council  is  supreme  over  all.  But  in  effect,  it  will 
be  <cen.  tlie  company  had  it  all  their  own  way.  They  are  absolute 
owners  of  all  mines,  and  cither  for  mining  purposes,  for  railways, 
i"V  towns,  or  any  other  public  works,  they  are  entitled  to  take 
land  from  the  ivatives,  so  long  as  they  locate  the  latter  elsewhere. 
kiiodc.s  ami  Jameson  visiied  luigland  in  the  end  of  1894  and  suc- 
CL-c'k-'i  in  -ccnring  siill  further  concessions  confirming  the  supremacy 
oi  l\iio(le~  and  the  com])anv.  Rhodes  decided,  among  other  things, 
t  -  tala-  o\-(.r  ih.c  direct  administration  of  the  company's  extensive 
ttrrit'.ric-  north  (;f  the  Zamhezi. 

'1  he  (.-. 'm])any  was  thus  unfettered  in  its  activities.     The  country 
on  the  \'. hole  1.-  (.ne  of  the  mobt  favorable  in  South  Africa  for  agri- 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  235 

1894-1895 

culture  and  cattle-raising,  while  the  testimony  as  to  the  abundance 
of  its  gold-bearing  reefs  is  overwhelming.  J\Ien  and  money  alone 
were  lacking.  The  former  poured  into  the  country  and  in  1895 
over  two  million  acres  had  been  appropriated.  The  regulations  of 
the  company  both  w^ith  regard  to  land  and  to  mining  were  liberal, 
and  the  man  who  could  arrive  at  Salisbury  or  Buluwayo  with  only 
a  few  dollars  in  his  pocket  had  a  fair  field  before  him,  if  he  was 
willing  to  work.  As  to  money,  the  company's  resources  were 
heavily  taxed  by  its  early  operations;  but  there  was  no  lack  of 
capital  when  it  became  clear  that  it  could  be  profitably  applied. 
Cheap  and  rapid  communication  has  been  the  main  desideratum; 
and  as  this  was  supplied,  the  great  obstacle  to  rapid  and  profitable 
development  was  removed.  i\Iany  competent  authorities  maintain 
that  portions  at  least  of  Alashonaland  and  ]\Iatabeleland  are  well 
adapted  for  white  colonization  in  the  special  sense  of  that  term. 
That  is  a  matter  that  can  only  be  tested  by  experience,  such  experi- 
ence as  cannot  be  acquired  in  a  single  generation. 

It  may  be  stated  that  in  1893  the  company  acquired  a  conces- 
sion from  the  native  chief  of  an  extensive  territory  in  the  Lake 
Ngami  region,  which  it  was  proposed  to  colonize  by  Cape  farmers. 
At  the  same  time  the  company  continued  to  pay  tribute  to  the  king 
of  Gazaland  for  certain  concessions  in  his  territory,  notwithstand- 
ing the  claims  put  forward  by  Portugal. 

While  the  incidents  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi  were  keeping 
all  Europe  in  a  state  of  excitement,  equally  stirring  events  were 
taking  place  on  the  north  of  the  river,  w'liere  also  a  great  area  was 
being  included  in  the  British  sphere. 

England's  connection  with  the  Lake  Xyasa  region,  it  lias  been 
seen,  dates  from  tlie  time  of  Livingstone's  great  Zambezi  expedition 
(1858-1864).  As  tlie  result  of  Livingstone's  work  Scotch  and  Eng- 
lish missions  were  established  near  the  Shire,  which  joins  tlie  lake 
with  the  Zamliezi,  and  on  tlie  shores  of  the  lake  itself.  In  1878 
a  trading  company  ccjnsisting  of  Scotch  merchants  was  formed 
under  the  name  of  "  The  Livingstone  Central  Africa  Company," 
for  opening  up  to  navigation  and  trade  tlie  rivers  and  lakes  of 
Central  Africa  to  which  the  Zambezi  is  the  approach.  This  was  the 
company  known  afterward  as  l!ie  African  Lakes  Com])any.  later 
the  African  Lakes  C(jrporaiion ;  its  cajjital  was  at  Hrst  .'^loo.ooo, 
afterward  increased  to  $500,0(30.  Its  aims  were  soniewliat  ambi- 
tious;  the  acquisition  of  land,  the  formali'^n  of  lilanlati- >ii:.,  the  in- 


236  A  F  RICA 

1871-1886 

trodiiction  of  various  cultures,  the  establishment  of  trade,  the  trans- 
port oi  q^t'ods.  were  ainouj;-  the  means  by  which  the  subscribers  were 
to  cnrrv  out  tlicir  objects.  It  was  understood,  moreover,  that  the 
companv  would  act  as  a  sort  of  secular  adjunct  to  the  missions 
estaiilislied  in  the  rci^itni.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  operations 
of  the  comj^any  were,  until  recently,  conducted  with  any  great 
amount  of  energy.  Stations  were  established  on  the  Shire  and  on 
the  west  shores  of  the  lake;  and  a  highroad,  the  Stevenson  Road, 
was  made  between  Lake  Nyasa  and  Lake  Tanganyika.  Planting 
on  a  small  scale  was  carried  on  and  some  little  trade  was  done. 
The  boats  belonging  to  the  company  were  of  service  in  carrying 
the  missionaries  and  their  stores  to  the  stations  in  Nyasaland ;  but 
for  the  dcveKipment  of  the  country  much  more  was  effected  by 
private  initiative  than  by  the  operations  of  the  company.  The 
Blantyre  Highlands  to  the  east  of  the  Upper  Shire  were  found  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  the  culture  of  coffee,  and  by  1887  promising 
plantations  had  been  established.  By  that  year,  through  the  united 
efforts  of  the  missionaries,  the  company,  private  traders,  and  the 
consul  at  Mozambique,  British  interests  in  the  region  around  Lake 
Xyasa  had  become  very  considerable.  Comparatively  feeble  as 
the  efforts  of  the  African  Lakes  Company  had  been,  they  certainly 
did  more  for  the  legitimate  development  of  the  resources  of  the 
country  than  did  the  efforts  of  Portugal  during  the  long  centuries 
she  had  been  on  the  Lower  Zambezi.  Until  Germany  entered  the 
field,  Portugal  does  not  sccni  to  have  disturbed  herself  greatly  as 
to  the  British  occupation  of  the  country  on  the  Shire  and  Lake 
Xyasa.  P>ut  when  the  scramble  became  general,  when  Germany, 
I-rance.  luigland,  and  the  King  of  the  Belgians  were  sweeping  one 
regit. ii  after  an(jthcr  into  their  grasp,  I'ortugal  became  alive  to 
her  critical  ])osition  on  the  continent.  In  return  for  what  she  re- 
garded as  certain  concessions  to  Germany  and  France,  each  of  these 
jiowci  >  in  1886  professed  to  recognize  the  right  of  the  King  of 
Portui;,-;!  to  those  territories  which  lie  between  the  r\)rtuguese  pos- 
se-^i''ii-  of  Angola  and  .Mozanil)i(|uc,  without  j)rejudice.  however, 
to  the  c'aini.-,  of  nijier  jjowers  who  might  already  ha\e  exercised 
their  " -o\crcign  nnd  civilizing  inilucnce  "  in  the  region  in  ([ues- 
tion.  luifju^h  has  been  said  already  of  the  supposed  rights  (jf 
Portugal  to  a  trans- African  Lmj)ire.  Portugal,  it  is  j)robable,  never 
scrioudy  bc'icved  that  her  claims  would  be  entertained  by  Great 
Britain;  -he  no  doubt  iniaLMned  if  she  made  these  claims  extensive 


BRITISH     SOUTH    AFRICA  237 

1887-1888 

enough  that  it  might  be  possible  to  save  something  out  of  the 
scramble.  As  in  the  country  south  of  the  Zambezi,  so  on  the  north 
of  the  river,  Portugal  made  haste  in  her  attempts  to  obviate  the 
results  of  her  long  neglect  by  rushing  in  and  planting  her  flag  on 
the  threatened  territory. 

In  this  connection  a  passage  from  a  dispatch  by  Lord  Salisbury 
to  the  British  Minister  at  Lisbon,  dated  June  25,  1888,  is  worth 
quoting:  "  It  is,  as  Senhor  Barros  Gomes  admits,  a  disputed  point 
whether,  nearly  300  years  since,  a  Portuguese  traveler  did,  or 
did  not,  see  the  waters  of  Lake  Nyasa;  the  decision  of  this  con- 
troversy has  no  practical  value  at  the  present  day  as  regards  the 
political  situation.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  undisputed  point 
that  the  recent  discoveries  of  the  English  traveler  Livingstone  were 
followed  by  organized  attempts  on  the  part  of  English  religious  and 
commercial  bodies  to  open  up  and  civilize  the  districts  surrounding 
and  adjoining  the  lake.  Many  British  settlements  have  been  es- 
tablished, the  access  to  which  by  the  sea  is  by  the  Rivers  Zambezi  and 
Shire.  Her  Majesty's  Government  and  the  British  public  are  much 
interested  in  the  welfare  of  these  settlements.  Portugal  does  not 
occupy,  and  has  never  occupied,  any  portions  of  the  lake  nor  of 
the  Shire;  she  has  neither  authority  nor  influence  beyond  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Shire  and  Zambezi,  where  her  interior  custom-house, 
now  withdrawn,  was  placed  by  the  terms  of  the  Mozambique  tariff 
of  1877." 

i)uring  1887  Portugal  endeavored  in  vain  to  advance  her 
claims  by  voluminous  correspondence,  intended  to  prove  her  his- 
torical rights.  An  attempt  in  1888  to  close  the  Zambezi  to  navi- 
gation by  British  vessels  had  to  be  abandoned  in  face  of  the  per- 
sistent demands  of  Lord  Salisbury.  In  other  ways,  through  her 
Mozambique  authorities,  she  did  her  utmost  to  hamper  the  com- 
munications of  the  African  Lakes  Company ;  but  before  Lord  Salis- 
bury's firm  stand  all  these  attempts  had  to  give  way. 

During  1888  the  British  position  in  the  Lake  Xyasa  region  was 
complicated  by  the  hostility  of  the  Arab  slave-dealers  against  the 
missionaries  and  the  trading  companies.  The  Arabs  were  naturally 
alarmed  at  the  progress  made  by  British  influence  in  the  region, 
a  progress  which  in  tlie  end  might,  they  feared,  extinguish  their 
occupation.  Hostilities  were  carried  on  for  some  months  in  the 
district  on  the  west  of  the  Lake  Nyasa,  and  it  was  in  connection 
with  these  that  the  name  of  Captain  Lugard  first  came  prominently 


288  AFRICA 

1888-1889 

In't'orc  the  Hn'tisli  piiMio.  lie  rendered  valuable  service  ap^ainst  the 
Arabs  and  their  native  allies,  and  pmbably  was  the  means  of  pre- 
venting- a  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Hrilish  i-.i  the  country.  The 
rortuj^-uese  otlicials  at  Mozambique  did  their  utmost  to  hamper  tiie 
r.riiish  bv  prevent ini,^  the  importatic^n  of  much-needed  ammunition 
and  weapons.  It  was  not  imtil  the  advent  of  the  experienced  Johns- 
ton, as  tlie  British  rcprcsentati\e  in  Nyasaland.  that  an  understand- 
ing^ was  reached  between  the  Arabs  and  the  Lakes  Company,  the 
sinews  o\  war  beins^  snjiplied  in  a  ^i^reat  measure  by  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  to  the  extent  of  about  $350,000.  While  slave- 
tradiii.c:  was  by  no  means  extini^uished.  it  was  to  a  consi(leral)le 
extent  sujipressed.  thous;']!  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  ere  it  is 
abolishev!  entirely.  L'nfortunately  the  evidence  is  only  too  con- 
vincini,'  that  men  callinj^f  themselves  1 'ortu.q'uese  subjects  do 
(|uite  as  much  as  the  Arabs  to  continue  the  traflk  north  of  the 
Zambezi. 

While  in  1S88  tliese  troubles  were  harassing  the  British  occu- 
]iants  of  Xyasahuid.  I'orlu.qal  was  making  a  final  determined  effort 
to  (ibtain  pos.-ession  of  a  region  which  she  had  so  long  neglected. 
So  laic  as  October.  1S8X.  the  I)ritish  Minister  at  I.isl)on  was  able 
t'l  a-^-nre  Scnlior  Comes  that  I'Jigland  had  no  intention  of  estab- 
lishing exc!ri>i\e  jmixliction  o\er  the  Lake  Xyasa  region;  she 
simply  (Ic-ired  tinliampered  freedom  for  her  missionaries  and 
tra(Icr>.  This  neutral  attitude  did  not  long  continue.  Toward 
tl'.e  end  <»f  iSSiS  the  consul  at  Mozambi(iue  reported  that  a  formid- 
able expedition  wa:<  on  its  way  to  the  Shire  River  and  the  west 
s!]ore  of  L'lke  Xya>a.  Hioiigh  this  exi)edition  reached  the  south 
>h' -re  .'1  the  lake,  its  reception  by  the  natives  was  so  unfavorable 
tliai  in  tiie  >i)riiig  of  iSSg  it  was  resolved  at  Lisbon  to  send  a  relief 
cxpi.-'i;f."n  lo  it>  aid.  under  the  cf»nimand  of  the  famous  Serjja  I 'into. 
AlM.r.t  t':e  same  tune  a  royal  flccree  established  and  endowed  a 
1\'  ni;in  Cat'v'lic  nii->io:i  (,n  the  soutli  shore  of  Lrd<e  Xyasa.  'Jdie 
i'.;:e;it!  n  ■>[  thi>  wa-  i>l)\iwus.  b'dToi-ts  were,  moreo\'er.  made  l)y  the 
r^rtugiK-e  authorities  al  Mozambiijue  to  induce  \arious  chiefs  in 
t'.e  ne:,L:;ii)'irhoi,d  -jI  tlie  lake  to  declare  th.emselves  vas>als  of  Por- 
tugal, br-i.  w;ih-ui  ^ucce->.  The  expedition  under  Ser])a  I'into, 
};■  ■•-'.  e\  er.  c:in-cd  more  anxict\-  tlian  anv  other  effort  on  the  part 
'-r  l'..!tnL;-d  \'>  ou'.do  (ircal  I'.ritain;  ami  bv  the  middle  of  ]S(S(j  ii 
bcc.'Mno  app.'treiii  thai  no  lialf-inea-^ui-es  would  suflice.  and  that  if 
*■■■    ■    '■■■••"!  v.eix-  to  .-ecni'e  her  iniere-ls  (.^n  tiie  north  of  the  Zam- 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  S39 

1889-1890 

bezi,  she  must  do  so  by  placing  the  region  under  her  flag,  and  so 
including  it  within  the  sphere  of  British  influence.  By  this 
time  Johnston,  who  had  done  excellent  service  in  West  Africa, 
had  reached  his  post  as  British  consul  at  Mozambique,  charged 
as  such  with  the  care  of  British  interests  in  the  interior;  he  was 
not  the  man  to  allow  himself  to  be  outwitted.  \A'hatever  may  have 
been  his  secret  instructions,  he  took  with  him  a  supply  of  British 
flags,  and  lost  no  time  in  making  his  way  to  the  Shire  River,  wdiich, 
it  soon  become  obvious,  was  tlie  ultimate  destination  of  the  force 
under  Serpa  Pinto.  By  the  latter  part  of  1889  this  force  had  been 
increased  to  some  five  thousand.  Serpa  Pinto  professed  that  tlie 
expedition  was  a  peaceful  one.  his  object  being  merely  to  pass 
through  the  country  of  the  Makololo  for  the  purpose  of  exploring 
in  the  region  of  Lake  Nyasa.  These  Alakololo  were  the  remnants 
of  those  who  had  accompanied  Living"stone  in  his  first  great  expedi- 
tion across  Africa,  and  had  settled  in  the  country  to  the  west  of  the 
Shire.  Here  they  soon  became  dominant,  and  though  only  a  hand- 
ful, made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  country.  The  action  of 
the  Portuguese  force  belied  the  ])rofessions  of  its  commander.  The 
Makololo  were  attacked  and  many  of  them  killed.  They  had 
always  remained  attached  to  the  English,  and  Acting  Consul  Bu- 
chanan, who  resided  at  Blantyre,  lost  no  time  in  formally  declaring 
the  Makololo  country  under  the  British  flag,  at  least  to  the  north 
of  the  junction  of  the  Ruo  and  the  Shire.  This  action  was  con- 
firmed by  Consul  Johnston  when  lie  arrived  on  the  scene,  and 
subsequent  treaties  with  nati\'e  chiefs,  both  in  the  Shire  district, 
on  the  west  of  Lake  Xyasa.  and  as  far  as  Lake  Tanganyika,  to 
which  Johnston  proceeded,  barred  the  way  against  further  Portu- 
guese aggression.  Johnston's  acli\il_\'  in  securing  I^ritish  interests 
in  this  important  region  was  adiniraljle;  tlie  country  is  cajjable 
of  considerable  industrial  develdpnient,  not  only  in  the  Ulantyre 
highlands,  l)ut  in  tlie  lofty  ])I.'Ucau  lying  between  Lakes  Xyasa  and 
Tanganyika,  and  is  comparatively  favorable  to  the  residence  of 
Europeans. 

Meanwhile  the  P(jrtuguese  oflicials  on  the  Sln"re  continued  to 
annoy  British  traders  and  explorers,  and  tlic  Portuguese  .authorities 
in  Mozambiciue  did  wliat  they  could  to  hamper  Pritish  commerce. 
Commissioned  by  KIhhIcs,  Jo-ci)h  Tlionison,  the  eminent  African 
explorer,  accompanied  by  (Irant.  ascended  tlie  .Sliire  for  the  ])nr- 
pose  of  proceeding  westward  tc;  Lake  Pangwcjlo.     While  proceed- 


240  A  1-  H  I  C  A 

1890-1891 

iiit:  nlinic:  tfic  Shire  he  was  actually  fired  upon  at  the  instigation 
«.«t  the  Portuj^uesc,  hut  without  injurious  results.  The  real  object 
of  the  expeilititui.  as  of  another  seiu  out  at  the  same  time  under 
Sharpe.  was  to  secure  the  country  of  Katanga,  lying  on  the  west 
of  Lake  Mweru.  f>>r  tiie  liritish  South  Africa  Company.  The  dis- 
trict coveted  uudouhtedly  lay  within  the  cartographical  limits  of 
the  Congo  I'ree  State,  and  not  unnaturally  the  King  of  the  Belgians 
resented  this  attcmi)t  to  snatch  from  his  grasp  a  country  reputed 
ttt  be  rich  in  gold  and  cojjper.  The  king  might  easily  have  been 
inducetl  to  enter  into  an  arrangement  with  Rhodes  had  the  latter 
shown  more  dipktmacy:  as  it  was,  a  Belgian  Katanga  Company 
was  immediately  formed,  and  the  country  was  speedily  taken  pos- 
session of  in  tlie  name  of  the  I'ree  State. 

RIkhIcs  not  only  sought  after  Katanga,  but  had  the  ambi- 
tion of  swee])ing  under  the  sway  of  his  Chartered  Company  the 
region  worked  by  the  Lakes  Company  and  all  the  territory  north 
of  the  Zamljezi.  The  Lakes  Company,  it  has  been  seen,  was  never 
characterized  by  stupendous  enterprise;  their  operations  had  always 
been,  probably  from  lack  of  funds,  on  a  petty  scale.  Rhodes  of- 
fered therefore  to  incorporate  the  company  with  the  Soutli  African 
Company,  and  to  allow-  them  a  handsome  annual  subsidy.  Johnston, 
who  had  come  home  after  securing  British  interests  on  the  north 
of  tlie  Zambezi,  returned  to  his  post  in  the  spring  of  1891,  as 
commissioner  and  consul-general  for  British  Central  Africa,  and 
administrator  of  what  is  now  officially  designated  the  British  Cen- 
tral Africa  ])rotectorate.  To  enable  Johnston  to  carry  on  his 
Work  of  administration  and  development,  tlie  British  South  Africa 
Comp;iny  agreed  to  contribute  Jj>50,ooo  a  year;  the  actual  sum 
turned  in  during  tliree  years  far  exceeded  that.  Tlie  commissioner 
acted  a'-  ageiu  for  tlie  company,  wliich  claimed  the  whole  of  the 
temiMry  outride  of  Xyasaland  pro])cr,  under  which  are  included  the 
districts  in  the  Lake  Xyasa  region,  in  which  Ijritish  missionaries 
ha\e  been  at  work  frir  many  years,  and  which  are  under  direct 
inipcrial  .''.dministration.  Johnston  had  with  him  a  small  staff, 
••nclud'.iig  an  engineer  oflicer  and  a  practical  botanist;  he  took  up  his 
;:eadquaners  at  the  consulate  at  Zomba,  to  the  north  of  Pjlantyre. 
and  f.n  hi-  arrival  ^et  h.imself  at  once  to  the  establishment  (.f  an 
admm^tration.  to  tlie  furtlierance  r)f  legitimate  trade,  and  to  the 
enc  iiir.iLrenient  of  tin-  industrial  development  of  the  extensive  region 
I   ■'■'■'•■'  '•■■'••■  ':'-  c'l-e.     Ili-  \v(_)rk  was  facilitated  bv  the  ratification 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  241 

1891-1894 

of  the  Anglo-Portugiiese  agreement  of  June  ii,  1891,  wliich  settled 
all  disputes  as  to  boundaries.  By  this  agreement  the  whole  of  the 
region  to  the  north  of  the  Zambezi,  west  of  the  Shire  and  Lake 
Nyasa,  to  the  Barotse  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Upper  Zambezi 
is  included  in  the  British  sphere;  so  that  by  this  arrangement,  some- 
thing like  500,000  square  miles  were  added  to  the  British  sphere, 
including  some  of  the  best  w^atered  and  most  promising  portions  of 
Central  Africa. 

Johnston  began  his  work  of  organization  with  the  country 
south  of  the  lake.  The  missionaries,  who  had  hitherto  been 
supreme  in  these  parts,  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  intrusion  of  the 
civil  power,  and  some  friction  was  at  first  the  result.  Aluch  more 
serious  was  the  friction  which  took  place  between  Johnston  and  the 
slave-trading  chief  Makanjila  on  the  south  shore  of  the  lake.  An 
encounter  between  a  small  English  force  and  the  chief  resulted  disas- 
trously for  the  former.  But  the  commissioner  could  not  submit 
quietly  to  such  a  defeat.  While  dealing  effectively  with  other  hostile 
and  slave-raiding  chiefs,  it  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  1894  that 
he  felt  himself  in  a  position  to  attack  Makanjila's  stronghold.  He 
had  in  the  meantime  been  reinforced  by  additional  Sikhs  from  India 
and  by  two  new  gunboats  on  the  lake.  The  Makanjila  had  himself 
been  murdered  by  a  relative,  and  a  new  Makanjila  reigned  in  his 
stead,  having  some  2000  men  at  his  command.  In  the  end  of  1893 
and  beginning  of  1894  the  new  Alakanjila  was  completely  defeated, 
and  in  March,  1894,  he  made  his  submission  to  the  British  autliori- 
ties;  so  that  one  of  the  most  formidal^le  obstacles  to  the  development 
of  Nyasaland  and  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade  has  been 
removed. 

Though  much  has  thus  been  accomplished,  and  although  the 
region  on  the  south  of  the  lake  is  now  under  command,  much 
remains  to  be  done  on  the  west  of  the  lake  and  in  the  rest  of  tlic 
sphere  ere  slave-raiding  chiefs  and  slave-dealing  Aral)s  can  be  finally 
gotten  rid  of.  In  dealing  with  native  chiefs,  however,  and  with 
Arab,  or  so-called  Arab,  settlers  and  traders,  the  greatest  tact  and 
patience  are  needed.  To  attempt  to  sweep  slavery  off  tlie  face  of  the 
continent  at  one  l)low  will  result  only  in  the  defeat  of  the  object 
aimed  at.  But  Johnston  had  shown  on  more  than  one  occasion 
that  he  knew  how  to  deal  both  with  natives  and  with  Arabs,  and 
there  was  every  reason  to  hope  that  under  his  administration  the 
British  Central  Africa  protectorate  would  dc\e1(jp  into  a   Innd  of 


^^2  AFRICA 

1891-1894 

[HMi-c  niu!  settled  inciustry.  This  linpc  lias  been  realized  in  no 
sin;iH  dcR-rec.  Johnston  divided  the  protectorate  on  Lake  Nyasa 
.Hid  the  country  hcvond  into  provinces  and  districts;  there  are  out- 
lyinc:  posts  as  far  as  T.akc  Mwern,  on  the  borders  of  the  Cons^o  h^ec 
State.  A  considerable  revenue  is  raised  by  customs  duties  and 
taxation.  The  lun-opcan  ])(^pulation  is  about  450,  mostly  l^rilish 
subiects.  Moreover,  traders  arc  settlinj^  in  the  lower  rcj^ion.  while 
A  rails  recos-ni/cd  as  traders  of  repute  liavc  stations  in  various  parts 
of  the  British  sphere.  The  total  native  population  is  about  Qoo.ono. 
thini.crh  lari^^c  areas  have  been  devastated  by  slave-raiding-.  lUantyre 
has  a  population  of  alx^ut  100  Europeans  and  6000  natives.  It  has 
manv  good  houses  and  a  handsome  church  of  brick,  built  entirely 
bv  native  labor.  The  Shire  province,  lying-  round  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Xvasa.  is  governed  much  after  the  manner  of  a 
Crown  coI(Miy.  It  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  each  with  its 
staff  of  oftlcials.  There  are  postoffices  and  custom-houses,  and  a 
newspaper,  and  the  telegraph  has  been  rapidly  extended  to  the 
Zambezi,  so  that  Zomba  and  P)lantyre  are  in  telegraphic  connection 
with  luigland.  Cjond  roads  arc  being  made  in  all  directions,  and 
steps  arc  being  taken  to  connect  the  Lower  Shire,  past  the  rapids, 
by  means  of  a  railroad  with  the  lake.  Coffee-planting  has  been 
greatly  extended,  and  the  produce  fetches  tlic  highest  price  in  the 
foreign  mru-ket.  Rice  and  wheat  are  gfrown  successfully,  while 
cxjierimciUs  are  also  being  made  with  sugar,  tea,  tobacco,  and  other 
prn(h)ct-^.  which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  will  prove  successful. 
Oats  and  barley  tlirive  in  the  uplands,  while  merino  sheep  and  Xatal 
ponies  <ccm  to  prosper.  Natives  come  to  Rlantyrc  from  all  quar- 
ters seeking  v.ork.  The  Shire  itself  has  become  a  highway  of  com- 
merce. On  this  river  and  Lake  Nyasa  there  are  three  gunboats: 
there  is  also  an  armed  force  of  over  200  Sikhs,  witli  several  hundred 
black  J). /lice,  commanded  by  English  oftlcers  and  Sikh  non-commis- 
sinncd  i.fiicers.  There  is  besides  an  armament  of  artillery  with 
mountain  gnns.  At  tlic  Cliinde  mouth  of  the  Zambezi,  the  l^^rtu- 
gre^-e  C,o\  r;-nn;cnt  has  very  liberally  granted  a  small  piece  of  land 
called  the  liriti';;)  Concession,  f^n  wiiicli  goods  may  be  landed  and 
tr;insshi[)pcd  free  of  fluty.  There  are  six  missionary  societies  at 
work,  mainly  .Scr>tch  :  thev  have  shov.n  great  practical  sense,  and 
ha\e  lifcn  reinnrknbly  =ucce=<;fnl  in  many  ways. 

'f  hf.nr-^r,n  returned  in  '^battered  health  in  the  end  of  i.'^gr  from 
his  cx[)edition  to  Lrd<o  P.angweolo.      He  traversed  the  plateau  region 


BRITISH     SOUTH     AFRICA  243 

1891-1896 

between  Lakes  Nyasa  and  Bang^veolo  in  various  directions,  and 
his  report  to  the  company  speaks  in  glowing  terms  of  the  sakibrity 
of  the  region  and  of  its  suitabiHty  for  plantations  and  for  cattle- 
raising.  Meantime  Rhodes,  who  visited  England  in  the  latter  part 
of  1892,  floated  a  scheme  for  the  construction  of  a  line  of  telegraph 
through  the  heart  of  Africa,  joining  all  the  lakes  and  bringing  the 
Cape  into  communication  with  Cairo. 

The  succeeding  history  of  Rhodesia  has  been,  for  the  most 
part,  a  steady  advance  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  its  founder. 
It  is  now  divided  into  Southern,  Northwestern,  and  Nordieastern 
Rhodesia;  of  these  divisions  Southern  Rhodesia  is.  of  course,  the 
region  best  suited  for  true  colonization.  Northwestern  Rhodesia  is 
the  formerly  disputed  district  of  Barotseland.  This  whole  region  is 
being  developed  as  no  other  part  of  the  interior  has  been ;  the  death 
of  the  moving  spirit  has  but  little  affected  the  progress  of  his 
enterprises. 

But  the  recent  history  of  Rhodesia  has  had  its  dark  pages  also. 
Early  in  1896,  the  Matabeles,  a  strong  and  warlike  tribe,  taking 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  offered  by  the  Jameson  raid  and  its 
sequel,  broke  out  in  rebellion,  A  prominent  cause  of  the  revolt  was 
to  be  found  in  the  shooting  of  seemingly  healthy,  but  actually  in- 
fected cattle  by  the  British  authorities,  during  the  "  rinderpest." 
This  proceeding  was  completely  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the 
natives,  who  saw  in  it  simply  an  intention  to  ruin  them  by  a  reckless 
reduction  of  that  which  constituted  their  sole  wenlth.  This  and 
several  other  contributing  causes  were  seized  upon  by  the  native 
witch-doctors,  who  w^orked  the  population  up  to  a  frenzy.  Consid- 
erable bloodshed  ensued,  and  several  hot  engagements.  Finally, 
after  some  decisive  successes  of  the  British,  Cecil  Rhodes,  witli 
astonishing  sant^-froid,  made  his  way  unarmed  into  the  midst  of 
the  black  hordes  and,  partially  by  promises,  partially  by  threats,  re- 
duced the  chiefs  to  subordination.  Tt  is  estimated  that  the  total  re- 
pression of  the  Matabele  rebellion  by  force  of  arms  would  have  cost 
$25,000,000  and  numerous  lives.  This  action  is  but  one  of  many 
which  marked  Rhodes  out  as  a  man  far  beyond  the  (M-dinary.  what- 
ever one's  opinion  may  be  as  to  his  general  character  and  innucncc. 

A  rising  in  ^lashonaland  followed  tlie  Matabele  rebellion  in 
June,  189^),  but  was  more  easily  controlled.  In  conscf|uencc,  how- 
ever, of  these  disorders  and  of  the  mortality  among  the  cai'lc.  tlie 
<levelopment  of  the  country  received  a  shock  wliich  might  h;ivc  been 


2U  A  V  U  I  C'  A 

1890-1898 

more  mnrkcd  liad  it  not  hccn  for  the  contemporary  discoveries  of 
pold.  At  the  same  time  an  enquiry  was  on  foot  to  determine,  among 
other  assiq:ned  causes  of  the  rebellion,  the  extent  of  asserted  "  com- 
puls(->ry  labor  "  in  Rhodesia ;  and  the  result  of  the  investigation, 
which  decided  the  question  of  its  prevalence  in  tlie  affirmative,  cast 
a  further  shadow  on  the  reputation  and  prospects  of  the  country. 
Xevcrtheless.  pn\gress  has  been  made  along  all  lines  since  this  period. 
In  i8«)S  a  degree  (»f  representative  government  was  assured  to  the 
settlers  (^f  Southern  Rhodesia;  and  a  resident  commissioner  was  ap- 
]>(>:nted  by  the  Secretary  of  State.  This  ap])cars  to  strengthen  the 
imperial  power  in  this  rcgii^n,  and  is  doubtless  one  of  the  prelimina- 
ries to  the  assumption  of  full  imperial  possession.  Northwestern 
and  Xortheastern  Rhodesia  arc  administered  by  the  British  South 
African  Company  alone. 


Chapter    XVIII 

AFRICA    SINCE    1895 

(By  the  Editor) 

THE  author  has  stated  that  the  main  lines  of  the  final  parti- 
tion of  Africa  had  already  been  laid  down  by  the  year 
1895.  Practically  no  African  districts  then  existed  which 
were  not  comprehended  at  least  within  one  or  other  of  those  vague 
delimitations  know-n  as  spheres  of  influence.  The  scramble  had 
been  sufficiently  vigorous  and  protracted  to  lead  to  the  appropriation 
of  all  that  was  as  yet  undivided,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  in  the  rest 
of  the  habitable  (not  to  say  uninhabitable)  world.  Not  only  this, 
but  to  all  general  intents  and  purposes  the  boundaries  had  been  fixed 
by  various  international  agreements,  so  that  rivalries  for  this  or 
that  comparatively  petty  advantage  were  all  that  remained  of  the 
grand-scale  collisions  of  previous  years. 

Into  these  latter  details  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  supple- 
mentary chapter  to  enter;  here  it  is  intended  rather  to  trace  the 
most  important  of  the  later  transfers  of  territory,  and  to  give  some 
account  of  the  recent  and  characteristic  development  of  the  districts 
already  acquired  in  1895  by  the  several  powers.  Tn  other  w-ords, 
the  present  chapter  will  deal  with  more  general  questions  of  adjust- 
ment and  policy,  rather  than  with  specific  matters  of  geographical 
delimitation  and  local  administration.^ 

Before  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  territories,  either  owne<l 
or  virtually  owned  by  European  nations,  a  word  shimld  be  said  of 
what  may  be  called  the  Aral)ian  portions  of  .\frica.  As  these 
(together  with  Liberia  and  Abyssinia)  do  not  come  in  strictness 
w'ithin  the  scope  of  the  present  volume,  except  as  they  ha\'e  formed 
and  are  likely  to  form  objects  of  interest  to  the  F.uropeau  powers 
in   their  projects   and    adjustments,    a   short   characterization    will 

^  For  information  on  these  latter  points  not  interpolated  in  the  text,  readers 
arc  referred  to  Mr.  Keltie's  work  in  the  .Statesman's  Year  i'.ook,  as  well  as  to 
his  and  the  editor's  bibliography  at  tiie  end  t)f  the  present  volume. 

215 


246  A  F  K  I  C  A 

1895-1910 

smTice.  The  yet  independent  ^^o!lanl^lcd.•ln  states  of  the  north  of 
Africa  (Morocco.  Tripoli.  I'ezzan,  Barca,  etc.)  are  of  an  essentially 
unprogressive.  barbaric  type  of  civilization;  but  they  are  warlike 
and  resist  c«in(|iiest  with  vip^or.  Islam  here  stands  in  the  path  of 
higflier  civilization,  as  it  is  ever  wont  to  stand,  inllexible,  fanatic, 
and  conteniptuons.  Whoever  undertakes  to  reduce  and  govern 
tlicse  rej^inns  will  have  the  task  of  the  Spaniards  and  Americans 
in  Sulu  and  Mindanao,  of  tlie  Dutch  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
of  the  neighboring  French  in  W'adai  and  Bagirmi.  Commercial 
advantage  is  the  only  thing  offered  by  the  Christian  that  the  Mos- 
lem wants;  ami  his  attitude  in  tlie  taking  of  it  resembles  that  of  a 
IiTd  Condescending  to  deal  with  his  slave.  It  is  worth  while  to 
forni.  MMui  this  brief  notice,  some  conception  of  the  destiny  of 
luiri  ])ean  eiUerprise  and  expansion  in  their  inevitable  entrance  into 
these  region-;. 

From  this  group  of  states,  in  consequence  of  recent  events, 
Morocco  must  be  singled  out  for  especial  attention;  for  her  status 
cannot  fail  to  be  altered  witliin  a  short  time.  Up  to  several  years 
ago  it  wa-  supposed  in  a  general  way  that  France  and  Spain  had 
about  equal  claims  to  a  Moroccan  protectorate,  if  any  considerable 
alteration  of  the  stains  quo  were  to  take  place.  But  it  was  also 
recognized  that  France,  being  next  neighbor  to  Morocco,  possessed 
the  advantage  of  being  on  the  ground,  and  of  being  able  more  easily 
to  shcnv  real  cir  ostensible  cause  for  redressing  actual  or  other  en- 
croachment. Some  adjustment  of  French  and  Spanish  claims  took 
place.  However,  disorder  in  ^lorocco  took  on  a  more  international 
f"rni  of  menace,  and  in  April.  1904,  the  world  was  surprised  by  the 
publication  (  f  an  Anglo-b'rcnch  agreement,  whereby  Great  Britain 
sicniL-.l  di>i)o..sed  to  iccognize  French  predominance  in  Morocco  in 
retu:i;  I'^r  the  aljandoinnent  of  the  shadowy  I'^rench  claims  in  Fgypt. 
Xo  jxirticr.I.ir  objection  was  heard,  however,  until  the  German 
]".mj)cr<.r  initiated  a  \igorous  jjolicy  of  protest  which  stirred  the 
v.alers  to  tlu-  extent  of  retiring  the  French  Minister.  Delcasse,  who 
h;ul  -trc-niii  u-ly  opposed  tiie  German  p(jlicy.  It  later  appeare<l  that 
'w.e  K'jti-vr  was  intent  on!}-  uj>on  tlie  maintenance  of  the  "  oi)en 
r"  i:i  M'lruccd;  and  tlie  b^rench  Government  adopted  tlie  same 
jjolicy  of  concih'.'ition.  In  (;rdcr,  however,  to  settle  the  whole  matter 
icabl'.cly,  an  international  conference  was  called  to  meet  (1905)  at 
A!i;cr;r.':<  i:  .'O'lin.  Mor'>rcr>  lias  been  a  source  of  trouble  to  the 
.'-cxcral   iKiti''!!-  owniii^^^  posbcssiuns   within  its  borders,  for  years. 


AFRICA     SINCE     1S9  5  247 

1895-1910 

notwithstanding  the  convention  at  Alt^cciras,  and  France  experi- 
enced so  much  difficulty,  that  on  May  25,  1907,  it  made  public  its 
intention  to  enforce  its  demands  upon  Morocco,  which  included 
the  settlement  of  all  claims  secured  in  the  convention  above  men- 
tioned. It  also  demanded  the  thorough  punishment  of  all  those 
who  were  causing  trouble  for  French  officials.  Previous  to  this, 
on  March  25,  1907,  French  troops  had  been  sent  to  Ouja.  one  of 
the  towns  on  the  frontier  of  IMorocco,  with  orders  to  remain  until 
reparation  was  made  for  the  murder  of  Dr.  Alaucomp,  a  French 
citizen.  On  July  4th,  of  that  same  year,  Great  Britain  demanded 
the  release  of  its  distinguished  citizen,  Sir  Flarry  MacLean,  who 
had  been  commander  of  the  sultan's  body  guard.  Both  demands 
were  acceded  to.  Not  satisfied  with  the  trend  of  events,  however, 
on  September  6,  1907,  France  and  Spain  declared  their  intention 
of  taking  possession  of  the  principal  Moroccan  cities,  owing  to  the 
permission  granted  them  by  the  Powers,  which  had  agreed  to  ex- 
tend the  scope  of  the  specifications  of  the  Algeciras  convention. 
Naturally,  the  people  of  Morocco  rebelled  against  this,  and  January 
II,  1908,  proclaiming  Mulai  Flafid  sultan,  they  declared  a  holy  war. 
France  and  Germany  entered  into  a  complete  agreement  regarding 
Alorocco,  on  May  27,  1908,  which  simplified  matters  somewhat, 
but  this  agreement  was  not  signed  until  February  9,  1909.  In  the 
meanwhile  Spain  was  forced  into  action  with  the  ]\Ioors,  and  King 
Alfonso  himself  directed  some  of  the  movements.  The  Moors 
practiced  such  atrocities  upon  the  Spanish  residents  at  various 
points,  that  the  sultan  ordered  them  to  cease.  At  first  the  Moors 
were  successful  in  the  engagements  between  ihcm  and  the  Span- 
iards, the  latter  meeting  with  severe  losses  at  ^.Iclilla.  Morocco 
applied  to  the  Powers  asking  intervention,  and  refused  on  Septem- 
ber 21,  1909,  to  withdraw  that  note  upon  the  demanrl  of  Spain. 
The  tide  turnerl  against  the  Moors  who  lost  400  men  in  action. 
Further  developments  showed  that  [)tiblic  opinion  was  against 
the  Moors,  as  the  diplomatic  corps  of  Tangier  refused  its  interven- 
tion in  the  matter.  Tired  of  war,  the  ^Moorish  tribesmen  requested 
the  Spanish  govennnent  to  open  peace  ncgoliations.  on  Octr)l)cr 
26th,  and  on  November  27th,  the  Spanish  cabinet  dccifled  to  with- 
draw its  troops  from  Morricco.  and  roio  opened  with  relations  be- 
tween Spain  and  Morocco  diplomatically  arrangefl. 

Fiberia  and  Abyssinia  arc  both  anoin:>!ie:-;.     The  former  has  a 
supposedly    rei")atriated    population,    l)nt    it    is    an    African    ethnicnl 


5W  A  F  RICA 

1893-1910 

mixture  of  a  fantastic  type.  The  case  is  difTercnt  with  Abyssinia, 
always  in  reality,  ami  sir.ce  iS*/)  once  more  nominally,  independent; 
for,  althou.qh  anomalous  as  havint^:  long  been  a  professedly  Christian 
native  state,  it  is  in  reality  a  community  of  advanced  and  progress- 
ive savai^^cs,  and  their  destiny  has  been  shrewdly  guided  by 
Menclck  II.  the  aged  fox  who  died  March  30,  1910.  The  Canary 
Islands  are  administered  as  a  province  of  Spain.  These  African 
fxv^sessioiis  cover  some  250,000  scjuare  miles,  and  have  a  population 
of  about  ijo.ooo.  They  are  of  little  value  and  should  be  sold;  the 
deficit  in  their  budget,  as  estimated  for  1902,  was  almost  $400,000. 

Xo  other  luiropean  possession  in  Africa,  excepting  those  of 
Spain,  can  vie  with  the  colonies  of  the  Italians  in  point  of  diminu- 
tiveness  and  generally  undesirable  character.  Italian  expansion 
had  taken  its  rise  under  the  ominous  dual  sponsorship  of  megalo- 
mania among  ideas  and  of  Crispi  among  men.  The  general  tem- 
per of  the  movement  was  most  clearly  seen  in  Italy's  relations 
with  Abyssinia,  over  which  she  claimed  a  protectorate  from  1889 
to  1896;  tliey  were  com]X)iinde(l  of  ignorance  (geographical  as  well 
as  ctlmological ).  self-complacency,  and  raslmess.  Italy  was  so  self- 
sritiM^ied  in  her  pose  as  representative  of  Mcnelek  in  the  concert  of 
])-  \ve;s  that,  she  ignored  or  failed  to  perceive  the  unceasing  and 
hostile  operations  of  the  French.  No  attention  was  given  to  the 
formation  of  a  correct  view  of  llie  Abyssinians  or  of  their  customs 
and  i)reju(liccs;  the  yoke  oi  the  half-acknowledged  protectorate  w^as 
made  mA  easy,  but  galling.  An  awkward  move  leading  to  the 
occupation  of  tlie  ancient  capital,  Adowa,  in  the  holy  country  of 
'iigrc,  precipitated  general  hostilities;  and  the  Italians  suddenly 
found  themschcs  opposed  to  the  only  strong  and  well-organized 
Anican  state,  a  state  whose  warlike  population  prided  itself  upon 
its  indcpcnflence  and  its  successes  against  invaders.  They  had 
looked  ii]j  n  the  Ain'ssinian  army  as  a  "horde,"  an  easy  prey  for 
five  hr.ndred  Italians  with  a  little  artillery;  they  found  it  armed  with 
rajjidrire  giais  and  drilled  by  iM'ench  tacticians.  On  March  i,  1896, 
iJ.O'x)  Italians  ra.->ldy  attacked  the  Abyssinian  army  of  80,000  and 
v.cre  all  but  anniliilatcd. 

In  t'lc  treaty  \vliicli  followed  this  battle  of  Abba  Garima,  the 
I)rotcrtorate  o. .  cr  Abyssinia  was  gi\en  up  and  the  Abyssinian  terri- 
tory v.l.jch  :.;'.d  ben  occupied  was  evacuated.  Kassala,  which  had 
been  "  licld  in  trust  "  for  Kgypt,  was  restored  to  that  government. 
Here.  the..  Abyssinia  returned  to  an  independent  status,  in  name 
a-  :n  rea.  ;:y:  and  Italy  was  relieved  of  her  f|uestionable  protectr)rate 
wit,]  li-  ■!ii{)osii!p;  figures,  eh^cwhcrc  c:i\en,  ni  area  and  population. 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  249 

189S-ldlO 

The  so-called  colony  of  Eritrea  (the  possession  on  the  Red  Sea 
coast)  has  not  been  the  object  of  much  enthusiasm  since  the  Abys- 
sinian catastrophe;  the  disillusionment  caused  by  that  disaster  was 
too  shocking,  the  actual  loss  too  severe.  Yet  it  should  be  recorded 
that  Italy's  policy  of  administration  among  her  sterile  sand-dunes 
has  been  far  from  discreditable,  especially  under  the  direction  of  the 
unfortunate  General  Baratieri.  In  1892,  according  to  Brunialti, 
Italy  had  achieved  "  a  modest  but  true  success,  without  exaggera- 
tion, uncertainty,  or  w^eakness,"  in  her  endeavor  to  benefit  Eritrea 
in  ways  hygienic,  economic,  judicial,  and  educational.  Civil  had 
replaced  military  government  with  the  appointment  of  Baratieri 
in  1892. 

Before  leaving  Italy  it  should  be  stated  that  she  has  had  her 
eye  on  Tunis  in  the  past,  and  at  one  time  even  took  some  half-steps 
toward  obtaining  a  lien  on  the  country  through  the  construction  of 
railroad  lines.  Here,  however,  she  was  again  outwitted  and  out- 
done by  France ;  and  has  since  taken  refuge  in  querulous  complaints 
and  muttered  threats,  and  in  a  diversion  of  her  dimly-conceived 
colonial  schemes  to  the  less-promising  Tripoli.  She  is  not  likely  to 
play  an  important  part  either  here  or  in  her  own  arid  and  stifling 
colony. 

Eritrea  now  contains  some  88,500  square  miles,  with  450,000 
population,  and  the  Somali  protectorate,  100,000  square  miles,  with 
400,000  population.  There  are  but  few  miles  of  railroad  or  tele- 
graph, and  commerce  does  not  meet  former  expectations;  an  Italian 
pearl  fishing  company  was  formed  in  1898,  operating  in  the  small 
archipelago  of  the  Red  Sea. 

The  case  is  scarcely  better  with  Portugal.  Like  Italy,  she  lacks 
size,  population,  and  capital,  and  borrows  a  feeble  present  impor- 
tance from  a  striking  past.  But,  unlike  Italy,  she  possesses  energy 
insufficient  even  passably  to  manage  and  develop  her  possessions ; 
even  a  reverse  of  any  magnitude  is  beyond  her.  Angola,  although  it 
is  said  by  Johnston  to  be  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Portuguese 
colonies  in  Africa,  may  be  dismissed  with  short  shrift,  as  may  Por- 
tuguese Guinea  and  the  coast  islands ;  despite  occasional  rumors  to 
the  contrary,  little  or  nothing  of  interest  or  moment  is  actually  done. 
These  sections  of  the  continent  vegetate  in  dullness  undisturbed. 
As  has  been  seen,  the  political  twistings  and  turnings  in  South 
Africa  have  stirred  the  Alozambique  region  to  the  old  activity  of 


«->0  A  F  U  I  C  A 

1895   1910 

Complaint  ruul  pretense  so  characteristic  twenty  years  ago.  Hut 
all  llic  iiit'orniatitMi  availahic  in  laic  Ncars  tends  to  show  that  proj^ress 
has  left  r»>rtu!;al  nntouclu'd  and  nndisturhcd,  so  far  as  any  whole- 
some etVccts  on  the  cohuiies  pfo.  l\)rtu.p"ars  possessions  in  Africa 
all  ci>ml)ine  to  form  a  financial  strain  upon  the  state,  and  what  was 
sai»l  oi  them  in  iS()5  will  do  very  well  for  a  decade  later.  Delagoa 
r.ay  has  hccu  connected  with  tlie  Transvaal  frontier,  and  its  rail- 
roads and  commercial  relations,  includinq;  a.ci'reements  concerning 
transit  of  i^oods,  have  l)een  arranged  subse(|uently  to  the  P>oer  War 
between  I-".ngland  and  Portugal  (December,  1901).  Some  miles  of 
railroad  and  telegraj)!!  lines  have  been  put  into  operation,  and  there 
exist  projects  of  fiuther  extension. 

There  is  less  of  change  to  re])ort  in  the  status  of  the  Congo 
i'Vee  Slate  than  would  have  been  anticipated  ten  years  ago.  it 
remains  a  j)iece  of  King  Leopold's  private  {property,  constituting  a 
per>oiiaI  estate  um-ivaled  throughout  human  history  in  size  and 
importance.  Its  comiection  with  I'elgium  is  still  a  purely  personal 
one.  mill  promises  so  to  continue  during  the  life  of  the  king.  'J1ie 
general  ilisiiosition  is  to  leave  the  work  in  his  hands  as  long  as  possi- 
ble. Leopold,  it  will  be  recollected,  made  a  will  in  1889  by  which 
Lclgium  was  to  inherit  his  Central  African  domains;  and.  although 
C(»nsi(lerab]e  inertia  and  opposition  had  to  be  overcome,  Belgium 
recognized  the  right  of  annexation  by  the  Act  of  July  3,  1890.  All 
the  legal  and  Constitutional  dilTiculties  were  gotten  out  of  the  way 
in  iS()4  by  the  introduction  into  Article  L  of  the  Belgian  Constitu- 
ti.iii  of  a  ])aragrai)]i  relating  to  colonies.  In  1895  the  project  of 
annexatiwii  was  actually  broached  in  the  legislative  body,  but 
eiKountered  such  determined  opposition  that  it  was  practically 
shelved. 

I'ldin  tlie  time  wlicn  Leopold  was  authorized  to  assume  the 
tii'r  di  ^o\ereign  of  i!ie  C"ongo  vState  (1885)  P.elgium  has  thus 
t'  yed  \'.  iih  l:er  ]n"ede-line<l  "  colonv."  She  has  even  advanced  funds. 
tl!";u'a  \'.  ith  a  "  >tring  attached. '"  The  present  status  is  practically 
tliat  1.1  iS<)().  I ; y  tlie  act  of  that  year,  Belgium  ad\'ance<l  a  sum  of 
.^■;.(;(  M )/)( j<,  ;in.l  obtained  tlie  riglit  of  taking  (j\er  the  African  de- 
I"  "i'':':!'  >  ;:!  ;i!i\  date  wit'iin  ten  and  a  half  yern'S  from  the  signature 
oi  the  act.  It  \\:{-.  tliought  b\-  many  tliat  the  Congo  .Stale  would 
!:.n-  :iatnia'I\  \:M  in  llclgiiiin  in  Kjoi.  I'.nl  on  Angn-^t  10  of  that 
ycT  t!ie  -tatu-^  dI  ir'no  \\;i>  reatliriiu-i j,  Belgium  renouncing  the 
rei-a;  ii.eu:  <.>i  ad\aui:e     ( i;n  ludnig  a  .sub>e(|uenl  grant  in    1895  of 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  251 

1895-1910 

some  $1,360,000)    and   interest,   and   reserving  still   the  right  of 
annexation. 

This  action  seems,  in  the  face  of  the  eagerness  of  other  powers, 
like  over-conservatism,  indecision,  or  faint-heartedness ;  but  there 
are  some  authorities  who  explain  it,  or  seek  to  excuse  it,  on  other 
grounds.  Some  say  the  king  is  at  last  deriving  profits  "  too 
welcome  to  be  rapidly  parted  with  " ;  and  it  is  asserted  by  others 
that  the  thrifty  Belgians  do  not  wish  to  assume  the  necessarily  large 
deficits  of  the  Congo's  early  years — deficits  which  have  seriously 
depleted  the  large  private  fortune  of  the  king — while  Leopold  stands 
ready  to  guarantee  them,  thus  avoiding  all  risk  of  financial  loss, 
while  practically  assuring  final  possession.  But,  according  to 
Boulger,  a  Congo  State  partisan,  "  Instructed  opinion  is  unanimous 
in  Belgium  that,  in  the  interests  of  everyone  concerned,  it  w^ould  be 
unwise  to  change  the  existing  state  of  things  on  the  Congo  during 
the  life  of  King  Leopold.  Under  the  present  system  the  Belgians 
possess  all  the  advantage  of  a  colony  without  any  of  the  incon- 
A'eniences,  and,  as  long  as  the  king-  survives,  the  situation  will 
remain  unchanged."  But  the  situation  nears  its  change,  for  the 
king  is  an  old  man.  There  is,  moreover,  no  doubt  that  the  defer- 
ment of  the  consummation  is  gradually  adding  to  the  anticipated 
charm  of  union ;  for  earth-hunger  is  a  consuming  passion  of  nations, 
small  as  well  as  great. 

During  the  years  since  1895  there  has  been  a  regular  advance 
of  outposts  into  the  less-known  regions  assigned  to  the  State  in  the 
course  of  partition.  One  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  was  the 
expedition  in  1897  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Nile,  which  established 
Belgian  influence  in  this  important  region,  and  directly  aided  the 
operations  of  the  Sirdar  of  Egypt  by  striking  a  serious  blow  at  the 
]\Lahdists.  LTlernally  also  the  region  has  l^een  reduced  to  better 
order;  the  administration  has  been  adjusted  and  regulated,  legal 
machinery  set  up,  and  civil  law  extended  throughout  the  State 
(May,  1897).  Between  i88r)  and  1897  criminal  cases,  mostly  iov 
theft  or  assault,  ha\e  been  taken  cognizance  of  in  greater  and 
greater  numbers  (622  in  the  latter  year  as  against  62  in  the  f(jrmcr). 
The  land  system  also  lias  been  regulated,  by  a  division  of  holdings 
into  three  classes — those  of  natives,  of  non-natives  ("  registered 
lands  "),  and  of  the  Crown  (vacant  areas). 

The  construction  of  railroads  and  telegraph  lines  has  been 
steadily  pushed  forward,  SMine  of  tlie  former  anticipating  projected 


^r>2  AFRICA 

1895  1910 

I'rondi  lines  nrnv^s  the  river,  and  JTiving  to  the  Free  State  an 
immense  oc<ni(imic  atlvanta.efe  ovcv  close  competitors.  Nine  hun- 
«lrecl  ailclitional  miles  arc  nmv  ready  for  construction  under  a  ninety- 
nine-year  concession  to  a  r.cl.q:ian  company.  Eng-incerinp;  difficulties 
of  manv  kinds,  lo  say  nothing-  of  those  attendin^f  transportation  of 
materials  of  construction,  and  enlistment  of  an  ade(|uate  labor  sup- 
plv.  have  sotneliow  been  surnicnnited.  The  wealth  of  the  interior 
is  now  within  two  days  of  the  coast,  and  much  risk  of  delay  and  loss 
has  been  remmed  from  commercial  enterprise.  The  telegraph  has 
Cfonc  almost  pace  for  pace  with  the  railroads;  to  overcome  peculiar 
local  conditiv)ns  of  dampness,  etc..  use  has  been  made  of  phosphorized 
bron?:e  wire  and  steel  posts.  The  telephone  is  operated  to  a  less 
extent. 

in  the  midst  of  what  would  appear  to  be  o^eneral  peace  and 
prosperity,  however,  the  friction  incident  to  the  contact  of  two 
widely  alien  races  has  manifested  itself  from  time  to  time.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  ib.e  earliest  bciG^innings  of  the  l-'ree  State  were 
bound  up  with  an  anti-slavery  agitation,  and  the  very  first  clause 
of  the  penal  code  placed  slavery,  even  in  its  domestic  form, 
outside  the  law.  But  tlie  State  was  set  down  in  an  area  peculiarly 
cursed  by  this  institution  in  its  basest  form,  and  by  other  objection- 
able savage  practices,  such  as  cannibalism.  It  has  struggled,  or,  as 
some  of  its  critics  maintain,  it  has  feigned  to  struggle  with  these 
elements  from  the  first. 

Now.  to  understand  the  difficulties  of  the  African  colonizing 
])ower.  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  natives  cling  very  tenaciously 
to  their  ancient  customs,  even  when  what  foreigners  regard  as 
incomj)arably  superior  is  offered  to  their  contenij^lation  and  imita- 
tion. They  resent  interference  the  more  bitterly,  inasmuch  as  such 
cust"ir.s  are  generally  sanctioned  by  the  local  religion,  to  say  nothing 
of  i;me-l;a]lo\vc(I  usage.  Slaverv  and  cannibalism  are  two  such 
custcims.  Comparable  in  their  vitality  and  general  acceptation  to 
])rivate  property  or  monogamy  among  ourselves.  It  is  not  at  all 
wonderful.  ther';'f' .re,  if  in  a  few  years  a  handful  of  Ivuropeans 
make  but  in-igniiicant  progress  against  them.  Again,  slaver}'  is  not 
all  of  a  single  t\pc:  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  institution  as  it 
exists  in  the  flomestic  form  among  untouched  savage  tribes  is  a 
mild  institution,  and  is  preferable  tf)  the  system  of  indiscriminate 
slaughter  of  the  \-an(|uished  which  appears  to  precede  it  in  the  course 
of  social   evolution.      This  dfjmestic   form   has   not   been   the  one 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  253 

1895-1910 

singled  out  by  European  powers  for  immediate  and  ruthless  eradi- 
cation. 

It  is  the  system  of  slavery  identified  with  the  operations  of  the 
Arabs  against  which  all  European  governments  must  proceed.  This 
kind,  in  all  its  shamefulness  and  barbarity,  is  the  direct  outcome  of 
the  appearance  of  America  on  the  scene.  It  was  in  the  effort  to  supply 
the  abnormal  demand  for  slaves  in  America  that  the  raid  system  be- 
came organized,  by  which  tribe  hunted  tribe,  and  through  which 
bloodshed  abounded.  Unspeakable  atrocities  attended  the  coastward 
retreat  of  the  raiders,  negro  and  Arab  alike.  But  it  was  not  long 
before  the  Arab,  with  his  keen  business  scent,  succeeded  in  creating 
a  practical  monopoly  of  this  bad  business ;  and  then  the  natives  fell 
back  almost  universally  into  the  position  of  the  hunted.  The  Arab 
traffic  has  been,  of  course,  largely  eastward-bound,  though  to  some 
extent  it  has  been  deflected  across  the  desert. 

The  only  effective  way  to  proceed  against  these  evils  is  through 
forcible  and  coercive  measures,  and  this  has  been  the  method  of  the 
Belgians,  among  others.  It  was  soon  clear  that  the  Arabs  were  the 
objective  point;  and  it  was  found  that  the  natives,  though  they  saw 
no  harm  in  the  local  form  of  slavery,  and  will  come  to  see  it  only 
after  generations  of  instruction,  w^ere  eager  to  aid  the  anti-slavery 
operations  for  reasons  of  self-interest  and  preservation.  There  was 
no  lack  of  opportunity  for  the  opening  of  hostilities  on  a  large  scale ; 
the  Arabs  were  eager  for  a  decisive  conflict,  for  their  razzias  were 
being  checked,  their  hold  on  the  Arabized  negro  chiefs  was  being 
loosened,  and,  worst  of  all  for  a  Mohammedan,  they  were  obliged 
to  pay  a  tax  on  ivory  to  the  despised  and  hated  Christian.  A  wan- 
ton massacre  in  1892  brought  on  the  crisis  and  led  to  the  destructive 
Arab  campaign  of  1892- 1894,  elsewhere  mentioned.  The  annihila- 
tion of  the  Arab  power  ended  the  devastating  raids  of  former  years, 
brought  about  the  replacement  of  disaffected  native  chiefs  and  a 
general  disarmament  of  dangerous  elements  in  the  State.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  resulting  peace  and  security  have  affected  favorably 
the  advance  of  the  negroes  in  agricultural  and  other  settled  pursuits ; 
and  that  the  slavery  system  is  now  practically  obsolete  in  tlie  Congo. 
But  it  should  be  noted  that  owing  to  tlie  fact  that  the  system  has 
not  been  rejected  by  an  essential  change  in  the  intellectual  and  moral 
attitude  of  the  native,  the  Congo  State,  as  well  as  otlicr  equatorial 
governments,  has  had  to  exhibit  tlie  greatest  acntcness  and  foresiglu 
to  forestall  the  ruses  of  tliuse  wh(^  w(juld  perijctuatc  the  system  of 


25*  AFRICA 

1695-1910 

compulsion  under  pretenses  of  various  liegfrees  of  plausibility.  Reg- 
ulations provide  for  the  oflicial  inspection  of  the  so-called  contracts 
l)ct\vecn  natives  and  employers,  for  the  limitation  of  the  duration  of 
labor  and  other  such  questions. 

In  governing  the  natives  the  Belgians  have  been  successful — 
if  success  be  taken  to  mean  an  increase  of  peace  and  order.  There 
are  indications  that  this  result  has  been  too  often  accomplished 
through  the  exhibitit>n  of  savage  cruelly  dishonorable  io  European 
civilization.  Serious  mutinies  in  the  native  military  contingent  have 
certainlv  occurred,  the  worst  of  them  being  that  of  the  Batetela 
forces  in  1897.  closely  followed  by  that  of  the  Dhanis  column  in  the 
same  year.  Here,  again,  the  prompt  resort  to  force  has  solved  the 
situation.  There  has  been  more  censure  of  the  Belgians  for  the 
employment  of  violent  measures  than  for  anything  else  except  per- 
haps for  the  vending  of  spirits  and  for  the  encouragement  of  canni- 
balism. It  is  therefore  necessary  to  distinguish  an  excusable  and 
inevitable  employment  of  prompt  measures  from  actions  that  may 
well  be  charged  up  as  crimes  against  humanity;  and  the  distinction 
should  be  perfectly  clear  when  tlie  latter  arc  pointed  out. 

In  1897,  in  the  House  of  Comniuns.  Sir  Charles  Dilke  proposed 
a  new  conference,  in  view  of  the  following  assertions:  "That  the 
ofticers  of  the  (Congo)  State  encouraged  cannibalism,  or  at  least 
systematically  sanctioned  it  during  the  Arab  campaign,"  and  "  that 
they  are  debasing  tlie  black  races,  and  paving  the  way  to  their 
extinction,  by  the  introduction  of  alcohol,  and.  more  specifically, 
of  gin."  And  in  the  papers  of  recent  date  there  have  been  a  number 
of  references  to  cruelty  in  the  Congo  region  on  tlie  part  of  Belgian 
officers.-  These  are  serious  charges,  and  it  should  be  recalled  that 
the  last  two  have  been  lodged  against  the  Germans  also,  especially 
in  the  neighboring  CanienKnis.  Some  of  these  matters  will  be  taken 
up  later  in  this  chapter,  in  connection  with  the  German  possessions, 
and  it  sliould  l)c  borne  in  mind  tliat  much  tliat  will  there  be  said  is 
designed  to  apj)]y.  with  proper  moch'fications.  to  oilier  tropical  col- 
onies, including  the  region  at  ])rcscnl  under  discussion. 

It  is  certain  that  the  laws  of  tlic  Congo  State  are  in  form  well 

-Of  late  a  formal  aRitati'in  ha-,  l)c<  it  orL^nnizid  in  tliis  co;intr>',  a'?  well  as 
elsewhere,  for  thr  pl!rpo^(■  <>\  fi.rri'iL,'  llir  i-mio  of  llit*  Coii).;:o  cnicltic-;  and 
■l.-ivfry.  The  ci^r  .-iuaiii-t  Leopold  ha--  certainly  hn-n  ^trfnL;tIi'ii''<l,  c-priialiy 
-:;.'e  no  adequat'-  rt-lmttal  iia-  hern  <>\urr(].     The  a--ertion--  iiiadi-  are  in  ^'ciK-ral 

\  ;•■',.» -I  •:-    ai'd    a:ii;i">;  ,i  i*  i,  m,    ,,f    tho-'-    luTiwith    rcliear-cd.    and    lia\e    liecii    so 
V.  :■'   ':    ■'        :     ■     •     •    ,     ;■■  rvij-iirij  n"  f-;rih<T  a'-'-onnl  in  thi     p!a'-c. 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  255 

1895  1910 

conceived,  and  that  the  intentions  of  Leopold  have  appeared  to  be 
those  of  a  cultured  and  generous  mind  (although  there  are  those 
who  regard  him  as  the  greatest  international  bandit  of  our  time)  ; 
thus  were  the  Indian  laws  of  Spain,  and  such  were  many  Spanish 
kings,  in  the  setting  of  their  times.  Abuse  was  not  prevented  in 
either  case.  It  does  not  excuse  the  act  to  harp  upon  the  commis- 
sion instituted  for  the  protection  of  the  natives,  nor  to  quote,  as 
Boulger  does,  the  legal  enactments.  It  appears,  however,  taking 
up  Sir  Charles  Dilke's  specific  charges,  that  he  has  misrepresented 
the  attitude,  by  not  considering  the  environment,  of  at  least  one 
prominent  Belgian  officer,  Baron  Dhanis,  to  whom  he  actually  refers 
in  connection  with  the  encouragement  of  cannibalism.  No  doubt 
the  baron's  commissary  was  occasionally  embarrassed,  with  plenty 
of  locally  acceptable  food  within  reach,  in  the  shape  of  the  newly- 
slain  enemy.  But  there  appears  no  real  proof  that  he  bade  his  men 
fall  to.  It  will  be  noted  that  he  was  one  of  about  six  human  beings 
present  who  held  European  ideas  about  the  eating  of  human  flesh ; 
and  that  there  were  at  least  io,ooo  indispensable  auxiliaries,  over 
whom  he  had  no  absolute  power,  who  thought  differently.  Until 
further  evidence  is  forthcoming,  it  seems  possible  to  accuse  this 
officer  of  nothing  more  than  an  enforced  yielding  to  the  situation, 
with,  perhaps,  too  small  a  show  of  resistance. 

As  for  the  sale  of  spirits,  Boulger  believes  that  it  has  decreased 
in  later  years.  Such  statements  are  hard  to  prove.  The  temptation 
is  certainly  very  strong  to  give  to  natives  the  thing  they  most  crave 
and  for  which  they  will  work  or  bargain  when  no  other  inducement 
would  stir  them  from  their  lethargy.  And  it  is  not  possible  for  a 
new  government  in  a  wild  country  to  control  unscrupulous  individ- 
uals. It  was  impossible  for  the  United  States  Government,  which 
has  nothing  to  accuse  others  of.  if  it  would;  and  it  has  been  equally 
impossible  for  all  other  governments  wlien  ill-adjusted  to  a  spacious 
environment.  Xo  doubt  the  stigma  will  be  removed  as  the  powers  of 
stable  government  extend.  Tt  is  to  be  noted,  though  it  is  of  no 
v;ilue  as  an  argument,  that  the  accuser's  nation  itself  has  taken 
part  in  a  lucrative  trade  in  a  deljasing  commodity  which  "  paves  the 
way  to  extinction." 

In  the  preceding  paragra])hs  it  has  been  shown  that  the  state 
which  emijarks  u])on  the  government  of  a  tropical  dependency 
exjKjses  itself  to  vicissitudes  (jf  the  gravest  cliaracter.  Tt  is  impossi- 
ble for  such  a  government,  at  least  at  first,  to  control  a  tropical  area 


a-SO  AFHK   A 

1895  1910 

ill  such  nil  ctTicicnt  way  as  to  curb  the  brutisli  passions  of  the  unruly 
and  vicious  whom  it  is  ahlc  to  restrain  in  tlie  lionie-land.  Praise  or 
blame  must  be  dealt  out,  then,  in  accordance  with  the  effort  put 
forth  by  the  colonial  power  to  adapt  itself  to  new  conditions.  All 
the  colonizing^  nations  have  been  accused,  and  with  justice,  of  cruelty 
or  the  non-restraint  of  cruelty — the  l^ritisli  in  the  Pacific,  the  Span- 
ish in  America,  the  Portu.q'uese  and  Dutch  in  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, the  b^rench  in  Tndo-China,  the  Americans  in  the  Philippines. 
Against  the  Belgians,  in  addition  to  the  charges  cited  above,  accusa- 
tions of  the  most  serious  nature  have  been  made  by  H.  R.  Fox 
Bourne,  in  a  recent  work  on  the  Congo  State.''  lie  lays  the  blame 
at  the  doors  of  the  government  itself,  which  he  accuses  of  indiffer- 
ence to  the  dictates  of  common  humanity.  The  "  curse  of  rubl)er  '' 
has  fallen  not  upon  the  individual  trader  only,  but  upon  the  adminis- 
tration itself,  so  that  oppression  of  the  severest  nature  has  resulted, 
especially  in  the  enforcement  of  unpaid  labor  and  in  the  collection 
of  taxes  levied  capriciously  and  without  the  slightest  regard  for  the 
economic  or  moral  welfare  of  the  native.  DeliiKjuency  in  the  pay- 
ment of  these  requisitions  has  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  whole 
villages,  and.  worse  still,  in  the  mutilation  of  men,  women,  and  even 
children.  It  is  asserted  by  a  number  of  witnesses  that  hundreds  of 
I'glit  hands  were  preserved,  bv  smoking  them,  as  proofs  to  the 
government  officials  that  delinquencies  had  not  gone  unpunished. 
If  one-quarter  of  the  charges  made  in  this  book  are  true,  tlie  Congo 
Stale  deserves  the  reprobation  of  the  world :  for  here,  it  will  be 
ui^tcd.  it  is  not  a  question  of  the  unavoidable  conditions  of  tropical 
governments,  but  of  administrative  incapacity  and  impotence,  or 
even  connivaiicc  and  t'liconragcmcnt. 

All  (luring  the  early  j)art  of  1908.  the  affairs  of  the  Congo  Free 
State  were  the  subject  (;f  heated  debates  in  the  Belgium  parliament, 
and  finally  on  Augn-^t  3r(l,  the  government  annf)iinccd  its  willing- 
ness to  subnn't  all  disputes  to  arbitration,  being  forced  to  this  deci- 
sion by  j)r)pular  oi)inir)n.  On  August  20,  1908,  the  Belgittm  Cham- 
ber of  I)cpntic>  ])assed  an  annexation  treaty  with  regard  to  the 
(  o;iy-r)  IVcc  Slate,  which  later  was  considered  and  passed  l)v  the 
senate.  'I  Iv  terrible  atrocities  in  the  Congo  bVee  State  reached 
such  a  height  that  on  Januarx-  28,  1909,  the  United  States  govcrn- 

■'•  ■' <'r;\  ;!:7.-!tion  in  roni^'oland  :  A  Story  of  Tiitcnuition.-il  Wrong-doinii;  " ;  with 
a  T'r-fr.tf.ry  S(>\r  liy  Sir  Charles  W.  DilK-o.  I.rnuioii,  1003.  An  answer  to  this 
.■.;•■:' k  i-  r.ttcnipted  in  ii.  \V.  Wack.  "The  Story  of  the  Congo  Free  State,"  New 
York,  v/^s- 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  g57 

1895  1910  '^     ' 

ment  withheld  its  recognition  of  Belgium  sovereignty  in  this  state. 
Further  demonstration  of  popular  opinion  with  regard  to  this 
matter  was  shown  in  the  sentencing  of  Lieutenant  Arnold  of  Bel- 
gium to  twelve  years*  imprisonment  for  his  atrocities  in  the  Congo. 
Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  disease  in  the  Congo,  measures  were 
adopted  to  stamp  out  the  more  virulent  types,  and  King  Leopold 
promised  on  October  28,  1909,  to  contribute  a  large  sum  to  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  Since  the  accession  of  Albert  I,  the  people 
of  the  Congo  have  hopes  of  a  great  betterment  in  the  administra- 
tion of  their  affairs. 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  leave  the  Congo  State  without  a  frank 
recognition  of  the  enterprise,  energy,  persistence,  and  skill  of  the 
royal  founder.  With  little  encouragement  he  carried  on  a 
grandiose  undertaking  which  may  yet  become  the  agency  in 
spreading  peace,  security,  and  civilization  where,  a  short  while  ago, 
these  were  quite  unknown. 

To  the  facts  which  have  been  given  in  preceding  pages  con- 
cerning German  Africa,  no  addition  need  here  be  made.  But  it  is 
all-important,  for  an  understanding"  of  Germany's  general  attitude 
and  colonial  policy,  to  take  a  somewhat  wider  view  and  perspective 
of  her  colonial  activity  as  especially  exemplified  in  Africa. 

It  should  be  noted,  first  of  all,  that  Germany  began  her  opera- 
tions under  the  guidance  of  a  consummate  master-spirit,  and  with 
the  enlightened  idea  of  profiting  as  far  as  possible  by  the  experience 
of  older  colonizing  nations  and  by  the  aids  of  modern  science.  This 
is  the  bright  side  of  the  picture.  It  must  be  recognized,  however, 
that  in  spite  of  the  best  intentions,  the  Germans  were  unable  to 
realize  tlie  utter  unfitness  of  elaborate  codes  and  of  a  minutely 
differentiated  bureaucracy  to  the  conditions  of  colonial  life;  and 
that  they  erred  in  trying  to  carry  over  to  the  colonies  that  military 
system,  in  all  its  rigidity,  which  had  served  them  so  well  in  1870  and 
before.  There  was  too  much  red  tape  and  a  too  frc([uent  brandish- 
ing of  the  "mailed  fist."    Let  us  see  to  what  these  factors  have  led. 

Lender  the  guidance  of  Bismarck,  it  is  in  all  ways  prol^able 
that  British  methods,  and  in  particular  the  device  of  the  Crown 
colony,  would  have  been  early  a'^loptcd  had  it  not  Ijccn  for  the  stub- 
bornness of  a  conservative  Reichstag.  The  chaiicclh^r  was  helped 
out  of  a  rather  embarrassing  situation  by  the  acticn  of  the  Colonial 
Societies  in  the  formation  (jf  Chartered  Companies;  later,  with  his 
rare  resourcefulness,  he  was  able  t(j  turn  tliesc  Icss-w  islicd-fur  alter- 


258  AFRICA 

189}  1910 

natives  into  instruments  to  secure  the  realization  of  his  original 
plans.  For  it  siioukl  be  noted  that  the  economic  and  political  condi- 
tions which  rendered  possible  the  almost  sovereign  and  independent 
activities  of  the  earlier  Chartered  Companies  had  been  considerably 
modified;  so  that  the  Chartered  Company  was  in  itself  more  or  less 
of  an  anachronism.  This  tact  was  not  long  liidden  from  the  mind 
of  tiic  shrewd  statesman,  and  he  i)rocecded  to  develop  to  its  full  a 
subsidiary  use  of  the  Chartered  Company,  ric,  that  of  a  convenient 
screen  behind  which  a  modern  slate  can  i)ursue  its  policies  of  exten- 
sion and  annexation  during  periods  when,  for  reasons  of  external 
or  internal  policy,  direct  action  is  less  to  be  desired. 

So  suited  to  its  ultimate  purpose  was  this  device  that  by  1892. 
the  recalcitrant  group  having  submitted  to  changed  conditions 
wherein  it  was,  nolens  z'olois,  committed  to  a  non-renunciation  of 
already  existing  interests,  all  the  African  companies  had  lost  their 
independence,  and  actual  annexation  was  all  but  inevitable.  The 
German  possessions  are  now  practically  Crown  colonics. 

The  comprehensive  intellect  of  the  great  chancellor  likewise  led 
him  to  support  the  Cerman  leaning  toward  scientific  thoroughness 
in  the  matter  of  investigation  of  soil,  climate,  and  other  vital  condi- 
tions, so  that  it  may  be  said  of  the  Germans  that  they  alone,  among 
great  colonizing  nations,  aj)])lied  from  the  Hrst  to  the  settlement  of 
the  difficult  problems  of  tropical  colonization  the  accumulated  experi- 
ences of  mankind.  This  dexterous  management  of  a  bloodless 
expansion  and  the  enlightened  method  of  approaching  a  great  task 
are  achievements  of  which  t()  be  proud. 

But  the  shadow-side  is  dark.  Apparently  the  machine-like 
system  of  the  home-land  could  not  be  adjusted  so  as  to  meet  easily 
an  extreme  contrast  of  environment.  The  bureaucratic  regime 
under  which  matters  of  social  adjustinent  had  too  often  to  be 
referred  to  tlie  "  green  baize  "  in  ncrlin.  {)ut  back  seriously  the 
early  (leveloi)ment  of  the  cohjnies.  uufler  both  the  comj^anics  and  the 
state.  And.  most  of  all.  the  exaggeration  of  militarism  and  its 
attendant  services  and  burdens  acted  as  a  check  to  ]M)Ssible  immigra- 
tion and  peaceful  industrial  development.  The  streams  of  immigra- 
tion were  little  detlected ;  the  cohjnial  pojmlation  increased  but 
slowly.  What  new  countries  need  is  a  Ino-^e  ;ind  adaptable  system, 
capable  of  a  myriad  of  local  modification^  to  meet  with  all  speed 
.iri-ing  local  nccl-. 

In  regard  :•'  the  nati\e>,  the  miliiar\-  di:'i)M>it'.oii  worked  a  (hial 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  259 

1895-1910 

result.  The  Germans  acted  in  a  way  to  be  thoroughly  understood 
when  they  taught  "  sharp  lessons  "  to  unruly  savages ;  their  display 
of  force  was  wholesome  and  effective.  But  the  spirit  of  the  subal- 
tern, puffed  up  with  the  dignity  of  unaccustomed  command,  was 
too  much  abroad  in  the  land ;  and  the  natives  were  treated  again  and 
again  more  curtly  and  capriciously  than  is  consistent  with  mutual 
good-will  and  native  subordination. 

To  this  tendency  of  the  young  petty  officer  exercising  an  uncon- 
trolled if  local  command  are  due  likewise,  in  part,  those  atrocities 
perpetrated  upon  the  native  peoples  of  wdiich  accounts  were  rife  in 
1896.  But  to  this  cause,  as  productive  of  fits  of  blind  rage  that 
know  no  measure,  several  others  must  be  added,  if  the  Cameroons 
atrocities,  and  those  of  the  Belgian  Congo  as  w^ell,  are  to  be  justly 
understood.  The  Germans  are  notoriously  poor  colonizers  of  the 
tropics,  being  affected  by  the  contrast  of  climate  in  a  way  seldom 
seen  in  the  case  of  Southern  Europeans.  This,  as  any  student  of 
the  subject  of  acclimatization  will  recognize,  upsets  the  bodily  func- 
tions, and,  above  all,  the  nervous  system.  It  is  also  to  be  noted,  in 
a  case  of  this  kind,  whether  the  incoming  race  is  careful  to  take 
precautions,  in  view  of  the  climatic  change,  to  suit  itself  to  its 
environment.  Changes  of  food  and  dress,  relaxation  of  social 
forms,  etc.,  are  indispensable;  and  sexual  and  alcoholic  excesses  are 
especially  to  be  shunned.  The  military  caste-system  stood  out 
strongly  against  the  former  adaptations ;  as  for  tlie  later,  wliilc 
sexual  vice  seems  to  have  been  an  exception  among  the  Germans 
and  Belgians,  alcoholic  indulgence,  invited  by  the  enervating  cli- 
mate, seems  to  have  been  characteristic  at  least  of  the  former.  The 
Germans  imported  and  drank  their  heavy  beer,  as  at  home ;  but  what 
was  temperance  on  the  Rhine  became  intemj^erance  under  the 
eciuator.  These  considerations  are  amply  sufllcient  to  explain  tliat 
condition,  recognized  as  pathological  by  German  Avriters,  to  whicli 
they  gave  the  name  of  TropcnkoUcr  (lYopic-madncss). 

Nothing  of  this  kind  is  encouraged  by  th.c  Berh'n  Government. 
Investigations  have  been  made  in  the  open  and  summary  ])nnishmcnl 
accorded  the  guilty.  But  the  eradication  of  the  difTiculty  is  to  be 
attained  less  by  legal  than  jjy  prophylactic  measures,  as  tlic  fore- 
going remarks  are  designed  to  sliow. 

In  spite,  however,  of  their  cariici-  successes  in  llic  crn:;ln'ng  of 
native  revolts,  the  Germans  ha\-e  not  b'jen  spnrcd  i-\i)cn<c,  ^^Ircnnnu^ 
effort,  and  humiliatic^n  in  n<ati\-e  \var>.     Owing  pi-cvai]iiiL;ly  lo  Ihr 


260  AFRICA 

109S-191O 

svstctn  as  outlined  above,  they  came  into  open  conflict  several  years 
ai^o  (  1903)  with  the  I  litttcntots  and  Ilercro  of  their  possession  in 
Stuithwest  Africa — and  the  end  is  not  yet.  The  physical  features 
of  the  land  and  the  peculiar  type  (^f  warfare  practiced  hy  the  foe 
have  contributed  ftM-niidable  danp^ers  to  the  local  German  domina- 
tion. In  trvins:;^  to  track  down  the  guerrilla  bands  in  the  desert  and 
in  fcvcr-roi^ions,  a  relatively  larc^c  number  of  privates  and  a  choice 
selection  of  young  ofTicers  have  been  killed  in  battle  or  by  disease. 
1  Acn  «Iefcat  has  been  suffered  by  the  Kaiser's  troops,  and  white 
l)ri>oiK'rs  are  said  to  have  been  burned  at  the  stake.  The  trade  and 
the  industries  of  the  colony,  such  as  they  were,  have  been  ruined,  and 
emigration  thither  further  discouraged. 

.\s  tlie  war  has  gone  on.  further  defections  have  occurred,  and 
tlie  situation  has  not  api)reciably  bettered.  -Meanwhile  the  Social- 
i>ls  mill  otliers  in  Germany  who  have  opposetl  the  expansion  policy, 
have  had  ammunition  put  at  their  disposal.  Up  to  the  end  of  1905, 
nearly  u.ooo  troops  have  been  employed  in  the  colony,  and  the 
co>t  has  mounted  to  ^^4,000.000;  that  is,  about  $2500  for  every 
wliite  settler,  or  $5000  a  head  for  the  purely  German  population. 
And  the  final  issue  cannot  yet  be  clearly  foreseen. 

Tl.c  Germans,  with  characteristic  directness,  have  contributed 
to  iliscussion  of  tlie  nati\e  labor-f|uestion  the  principle  of  "  compul- 
s  .ry  labor."  It  may  fairly  be  said  that  of  all  the  systems  designed 
lo  create  and  maintain  a  siijiply  of  labor  in  the  tropics,  slavery  alone 
l:as  uni\cr^ally  attained  its  end.  Econoiuic  incentives  are  all  but 
imijotcnt  in  the  tropics,  taken  as  a  whole;  and  substitution  as  exhib- 
:!l-i1  in  the  "  coolie-system  "  has  had  no  satisfactory  outcome.  Yet 
•J'.L  w'«rk  iniist  he  done  by  some  race  other  than  the  white,  owing  to 
ti.c  i:i;il)i!ity  of  the  latter  to  withstand  the  tropical  climate  under  a 
vi-gniK-  (if  manual  lab  ir.  Xov/  a  number  of  inlluential  German  pub- 
lu;-!-;  ir;nikl\'  icvi 'gni/c  tlicse  conrlitions  and  propose  a  sort  of  return 
to  the  r^iU'^h  and-ready  system  of  long  ag<x  Their  arguments  de- 
-rr\e  hr:ci  n.iticr;  for,  wliatevcr  else  may  be  said  of  them,  they  wit- 
ness to  a  clear  coi.ij,:fiH-nsion  of  the  conditions  of  racial  survival  and 
e.\i!!H  •;.  .n.  h  i-  t'lc  belief  oi  tliese  writers  that  the  native  races  of 
t.ic  e.i:i'!  have  no  nioie  right  to  a  life  of  idleness  than  the  members 
of  a  civilv.ed  race;  that  only  in  i)roportion  as  they  fall  in  with  the 
L^enerai  Uioveiiient  <•'  civilization  ha\'e  they  any  claim  to  an  undis- 
tr.rhe'l  paiMiance  ot"  i;:eir  aim-.  It  i-  also  asserted,  with  justice,  that 
.-eiiou^  !..  . -1"  of  -oiiie  Kind  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  advance  in  civili- 


AFRICA     SINCE     18  95  261 

1893-1910 

zation,  and  that  it  must  therefore  form  one  of  the  earliest  stages  in 
race-education  if  that  is  to  he  conferred  by  a  superior  race.  It  is 
also  clearly  recognized  that  the  alternatives  which  lie  before  the  na- 
tives are  conformity  to  the  type  of  civilization  represented  by  the 
dominant  races — and  this  demands  of  everyone,  at  least  in  theory, 
his  share  of  struggle  and  effort — or  extinction.  From  the  stand- 
point, therefore,  of  both  the  European  and  the  native,  it  is  well  that 
the  latter  should  be  forced  to  labor. 

There  are  not  many  weak  points  in  this  argument  if  the  gen- 
eral premise  be  granted  that  advanced  races  of  men  must  endeavor 
to  lift  up  their  less  fortunate  competitors  ;  but  there  are  many  serious 
difficulties  in  constructing  the  working  programme  based  upon  it, 
for  any  system  of  compulsion  of  the  weaker  lends  itself  easilv  to 
abuse  in  the  hands  of  the  unscrupulous.  The  Germans  have  recog- 
nized this,  and  sought  to  provide  for  it ;  with  how  much  success  the 
future  will  show.  In  their  relations  with  the  natives  several  notably 
successful  administrators . have  adopted  the  motto:  Severity  with 
Justice  {Strcngc  mit  Gerechtigkcit)  ;  the  former  element  is  not  likely 
to  be  wanting  among  military  bureaucrats,  but  for  the  latter  a 
responsible  and  honest  colonial  administration  must  answer. 

Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  an  experienced  British  administrator, 
has  said  of  the  Germans:  "It  will  be  seen,  I  fancy,  when  history 
takes  a  review  of  the  foundation  of  these  iXfrican  states,  that  the 
unmixed  Teuton — Dutchman  or  German — is  on  first  contact  with 
subject  races  apt  to  be  harsh  and  even  brutal,  but  that  lie  is  no  fool 
and  wins  the  respect  of  the  negro  or  Asiatic,  who  admire  brute 
force;  while  his  own  good  nature  in  time  induces  a  softening  of 
manners  when  the  native  lias  ceased  to  rebel  and  begun  to  cringe. 
There  is  this  that  is  hopeful  and  wholesome  about  tlie  Germans: 
They  are  quick  to  realize  their  own  defects,  and  equally  quick  to 
amend  them.  As  in  cotnmercc,  so  in  government,  tlicy  obscr\-e. 
learn,  and  master  the  Ijest  principles.  The  politician  would  be  very 
shortsighted  who  underrated  the  greatness  of  the  German  character, 
or  reckoned  on  the  evanescence  cjf  Gernian  dominion  in  strange 
lands."  4 

Attention  has  already  been  drawn  to  the  steady  and  sure  prog- 
ress of  the  French  in  the  Sahara  and  Sudan;  how  no  op])(>rtunity 
has  been  neglected  of  cntthig  into  the  ancient  trade-rcgi^in  whidi 
formed  the  Flinterland,  or  back-country,  of  the  West  African  sclllc- 
ments.  Mr.  Keltic  has  indicated  tlu-  chagrin  of  the  British  and 
4  Johnston,   "  Colonization   of   Africa,"   p.   258. 


'UVi  A  V  R  I  C  A 

1893  19IO 

(iiMMiaiis  at  l)oin.q^  thus  confined  ti)  the  coast.  Tin's  l-Vench  policy 
has  lieen,  howcxcr,  ahnost  universally  successful,  alliiough  it 
rcceivcil  a  sc\e:e  check  in  the  so-called  Fashoda  affai''.  later  to  be 
touched  upon  in  connection  with  the  British  operations  in  the  Kg^yp- 
•ian  Sudan.  It  is  here  ijUended  to  su])pletuent  the  preceding-  account 
of  the  l-'rcncli  colonics  in  Africa  hy  affording  a  rather  more  intimate 
\  iew  oi  Ircnch  activity  iii  the  formerly  Turkish  states  of  Algeria 
;uu!  Tunis;  and.  further,  to  set  forth  several  characteristic  aspects 
oi  I'rcnch  colonial  policy  there  exemplified. 

From  tlie  generally  unprofitable  and  ill-managed  colonial  pos- 
sessions I'f  tl'.e  I'rench.  Tunis  is  set  apart  as  a  **  model  colony." 
while  Algeria  has  ever  been  a  thorn  in  the  ilesh.  In  order  to  under- 
stand this  C(mtrast.  a  comparison  of  the  various  conditions  of  the 
two  colonics  will  be  necessary;  by  elinn'nation  of  the  factors  found 
in  ctnmion.  a  residue  of  dissimilarity  will  be  discovered  which 
sl'.o'idd  contain  the  germs  of  diverse  development.  Features  of  the 
local  ph\-sical  geography  may  be  dismissed  in  a  word,  for  both 
colonics  Consist  of  an  almost  identical  formation:  a  strip  of  fertile 
K'ukI  near  the  coast  and  a  desert  back-countrv.  Climate  and  marine 
influences  ditTer  in  no  important  degree;  there  are  no  contrasts  in 
]i]iy<ical  nature  wliicli  could  account  for  more  than  a  slight  diversity 
of  development.  'J'he  same  may  be  said  of  po]iulation;  it  is  a  com- 
hinrition  of  Arab  and  Arabized  I'erber,  completely  under  the  dom- 
•'n.ition  of  Moliammedanism,  with  all  that  tin's  imj)lies  of  fanaticism 
and  liosiility  to  Western  civilization.  Both  colonies  are  ])ractically 
C'jually  distant  from  and  ecpiallv  connected  by  means  of  communica- 
ti'ii  with  the  mother-country.  This  comparison  might  be  extended 
;r>  minor  details  of  economic,  social,  and  other  conditions  without 
re\ea!ing  any  essential  dissimilarity  in  the  environment  in  which 
t'le  I-'rench  v.cre  to  act. 

But  whttu  there  is  instituted  a  comparis(Mi  of  administrative 
])"l!C}-,  a-  exhibited  in  tlie  two  countries,  the  case  is  altered.  l\inis 
•  lilier-.  not  ..nly  from  .Algeria.  i)ut  from  all  other  b^rench  colonies 
oi  any  s;/c  and  im])'')rtance  in  haxing  been  cmanci])ated  from  the 
'  ■■.n<>  <\  i'le  i)r:ni-i])le  of  "assimilation"  so  characteristic  of  the 
'  ^  ing  (ianl.  This  is  due  largelv  to  the  fact  that  Tunis  is  a 
.;oe  ric'ini-iii'.n  anrl  t'lat  its  adnn'nistration  is,  for  this  and  other 
re-  ''-.  a  pr'-dnct  of  tiie  less  exuberant  !^])irit  f)f  late  years:  this 
;'.'lni;;.;-trati'  n  li:i\ing  likewise  fallen  to  the  wise  hands  of  Bourde 
:.:.']    ]\:'x-'  (  anilion.  men  of  modern  and  ])ractical  genius. 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  263 

1895  1910 

The  policy  of  "  assimilation  "  consisted  in  an  unrelaxing  effort 
to  assimilate  the  local  to  the  French  type.  It  cannot  remain  hidden 
to  the  candid  student  that  France  has  long  regarded  herself,  and, 
in  the  light  of  modern  history,  with  some  show  of  reason,  as  the 
most  liberal,  enlightened,  and  intuitively  progressive  of  nations. 
She  is  not  alone  in  this  characteristic  attitude,  but  has  exhibited  it 
more  dramatically,  perhaps,  than  any  of  her  fellow-nations.  This 
persuasion  has  led  to  a  twofold  attitude  toward  other  peoples,  and 
especially  toward  lower  races :  a  light  contempt  for  their  indigenous 
institutions,  beliefs,  etc..  and  a  missionary  benevolence  that  attempts 
to  exhibit  to  or  to  introduce  among  the  benighted  the  loftiest  (/.  c, 
French)  ideals.  The  contempt  has  too  often  been  leased  upon  over- 
weening self-satisfaction,  ignorance,  and  bias,  and  the  benevolence 
has  been  too  insistent,  not  to  say  intrusive. 

Now  the  Alohammedan  population  of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  as 
has  been  intimated  above,  had  no  great  lust  for  innovation  ;  tlic}-, 
too,  were  satisfied  as  to  the  superiority  of  their  own  civilization. 
Consequently  when  the  French,  in  the  ardor  of  their  world-mission, 
tried  to  assimilate  Algeria  to  the  French  type  in  respect  of  govern- 
ment, law,  marriage,  etc.,  they  met  an  open  opposition,  which,  if 
quelled  under  the  military  hand,  changed  form  into  a  stolid  inertia 
and  veiled  hostility  which  rendered  healtliy  and  mutually  beneficial 
contact  of  races  all  but  impossible.  French  instability  was  rendered 
the  more  unstable  by  ill-directed  and  fruitless  efforts  to  create  some 
common  ground,  upon  which  cooperation  could  proceed,  other  than 
the  natural  one  of  mutual  or  even  one-sided  toleration^  As  tlie 
reasoning  of  th.e  French  was  largely  of  tlie  a  priori  variety,  little 
progress  was  made.  It  is  imfjossible  to  give  here  more  than  an 
indication  of  measures  thus  iDa^ed  upon  uninformed  sentimentality, 
but  the  following  may  suffice.  It  seemed  (o  the  French  very  desira- 
ble that  the  nalixTS  should  naturalize  themselves  as  French  citizen^, 
and  thus  ixartakc,  at  least,  of  tlie  dignity  of  a  glorious  connection. 
But  the  natixes  did  not  perceive  the  adx-antage,  and  in  spite  o*' 
various  inducements,  onlv  113T  Mn.--uhnanN  were  naturali/;e<l 
between  1865  and  1889.  Tlie  p^dicv  of  niixCil  marriages  l)Ct\veen 
the  French  and  the  natives  has  also  bceii  f:i\-oi-efi  and  furthered: 
but  few  such  unions  occur  (22  in  t!ie  trieniiirtl  peiiMd  i8<)7-i8.)o)  : 
a  like  ill-success  has  attended  the  attemi'tt  to  intrf.ilnce  iM-enoh  c(m]v< 
(if  law  and  legal  pnice-lure.  Iiei'c^  a^  in  InilvC.'liina  :  tiii-  ba-  v.i;-kc<i 
hardshiji  to  the  nati\-e  p' ^pnlai  ii 'H.  and  lia-  Kc])',  it  :n  a  -;;ile  'm  c^n 


^Gi  AFRICA 

1895-1910 

stant  irritation.  Finally,  as  an  indication  of  instability  the  form 
.'f  i^mernnicnt  of  Algeria  has  been  very  inconsistent,  ranging  from 
niilitarv  despotism,  throngh  a  well-meaning  but  inopportune  intro- 
duction of  a  civil  regime,  to  incorporation  as  a  French  department. 

.•\  further  light  is  cast  upon  the  causes  of  dis([uiet  and  ill-success 
in  Algeria,  if  we  observe  the  elTects  of  the  absence  of  "assimila- 
tion "  in  i'unis.  In  considering  Tunis  it  should  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind  that  its  administration  was  enabled  to  profit  largely  by  the 
obviously  analogous  antecedent  case  of  Algeria.  Tunisian  policy 
has  exhibited  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  elsewhere  absent  toleration. 
Tl-.e  French  began  their  occupation  of  Tunis  so  naturally  and  delib- 
erately that,  as  Fallot  says,  "  Even  before  it  began  to  have  an  official 
existence,  and  before  it  had  found  a  name  and  a  permanent  form, 
the  government  which  was  to  regenerate  Tunis  and  give  it  its  place 
in  the  civilized  world  had  already  fixed  roots  in  the  soil  of  the  land; 
.ill  it  h.ad  to  do  was  to  develop  normally."  And  so,  "  instead  of 
wiping  i)Ut  the  ])ast,  and  importing  all  at  once  the  administrative 
<irgainsm  of  the  protecting  country,  France  was  thus  led  to  preserve 
ilie  greater  part  of  the  old  organization,  wMiile  progressively  modify- 
ing and  ameliorating  it  for  the  purpose  of  adapting  it  to  the  new 
oaidiiions  in  uiiich  the  country  was  about  to  develop."  The  author- 
ity of  the  bey  remained  ostensibly  intact,  though  each  of  his  acts 
w  as  in>pired  or  C'-unselcd  by  a  French  resident ;  and  the  lower 
forms  of  governmeni  were  preserved  under  a  similar  system.  The 
s!ie:ks  were  retained  as  tax-collectors,  and  the  natives  were  respon- 
sible to  their  own  tribunals  in  cases  where  Europeans  were  not 
in\-ol\e.l.  In  >,hort.  "  the  indigenous  scjciety  has  been  stripped  of  no 
jiart  of  its  own  organization;  it  has  simply  Ijeen  obliged  to  give  to 
that  organ:zaii<;n  more  methodical  forms,  and  to  eradicate  its 
abuses." 

Tliis  description  reminds  one  of  the  ideal  view  of  the  super- 
position of  the  Dutch  administration  upon  the  native  system  in  Java; 
ni;'.k-ng  ailijuancc  for  some  exaggeration,  its  results  ha\-e  been  sat- 
i-faitory.  Tlii^  is  the  only  i)ractical  way  to  manage  a  ])opulation 
wIktc-  tlif  nati\-e>  pred(;minatc  to  such  an  extent  in  numl)ers  over 
thf  !jir' pran  ])opiilation ;  and  it  is  an  especial!}'  politic  method  of 
<lc'. !;•!.-  wiiii  native  tribes  of  so  restless  and  dangerous  a  stamp  as 
tiie  .\r;.h-  and  Dcr^bers. 

r.ff  .re  leading  the  subject  of  French  colonial  administration 
.'.n'l  :•-  ;:ir.  .nifrriiiic  T   a  fiuilier  striking  examjjle  may  be  cited.     One 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  265 

1895-1910 

of  the  theories  applied  extensively  in  Algeria  touched  upon  th.e 
location  and  distribution  of  population-centers.  The  authorities  in 
Paris  had  very  pronounced  ideas  upon  this  subject,  based,  unfor- 
tunately, upon  small  knowledge  of  local  conditions,  and  an  even 
greater  ignorance  of  the  laws  determining  the  distribution  of  settle- 
ments in  a  new  country.  It  is  an  astonishing  fact  that  whole  groups 
of  settlers  were  obliged  to  move  this  way  and  that  in  order  to  satisf> 
Paris-made  theories  as  to  the  orderly  distribution  of  population. 
They  were  also  forced  to  live  in  an  "  agglomeration  of  houses," 
often  far  from  their  fields.  The  colonists,  naturally  enough,  tended 
to  settle  in  spots  which  promised  the  greatest  return  for  their  labors, 
and  to  these  places  they  desired  that  roads  should  be  constructed. 
But  no  such  homely  and  practical  ideas  found  lodgment  in  the  brains 
of  the  colonial  directors  (one  of  the  chief  of  these  being  Louis 
Napoleon)  ;  their  proposed  shifting  of  the  nuclei  of  settlement  had 
for  one  of  its  main  objects  the  lining  of  systematically  planned  roads 
with  villages  aptly  located  at  the  normal  grand cs  haltes. 

Algeria  and  Tunis,  owing  to  their  climate,  which  resembles  that 
of  Southern  Europe,  and  to  their  proximity  to  the  same  region, 
have  been  the  objective  point  for  a  far  larger  European  emigration 
(from  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Malta)  than  any  other  of  the 
French  possessions  in  Africa.  They  have  consequently  benefited 
far  more  along  lines  of  economic  development;  European  cultures, 
especially  those  of  the  vine  and  of  cereals,  have  been  introduced  suc- 
cessfully; the  Algerian  viticulture  has  had  many  years  of  great 
advance  coincidently  with  the  appearance  of  the  destructive  phyllox- 
era in  Southern  Europe.  Gradually  also  peace  and  order  have  been 
extended,  and  the  unruly  desert  tribes  have  been  repressed.  Safer 
trade-routes  have  been  opened  and  railroads  built,  extending  into  the 
Sahara  Desert  and  tapping  some  of  the  caravan  outlets  of  tlie  Sudan 
trade.  The  long-projected  and  already  partially  executed  Trans- 
Sahara  Railway  extended  in  July,  1903,  to  32"^  nortli  latitude. 
Advance  in  commerce  under  French  rule  has  been  particularly 
marked  in  Tunis;  and  it  should  be  noted  that  three-fourths  of  the 
Algerian  trade,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Tunisian,  goes  to  Imtuicc. 
But  industry  is  very  backward  in  Als,';eria  and  is  fcel)lc  in  Tunis; 
even  the  agriculturists  suffer  from  tlie  ]-'rench  custom  of  looking  to 
the  state  for  reimbursement  in  case  of  unfortunate  risks. 

Perhaps  the  worst  thing  that  can  be  said  of  hVench  colonization 
in  these  districts  is  that  it  is  costly — costly  not  only  to  the  state,  but 


^66  AFRICA 

1695  1910 

to  tlic  settler  as  well.  The  laiul-system  has  been  very  unfortunate 
in  Algeria ;  it  is  better  in  Tunis,  being  based  upon  the  Torrens  sys- 
tem, once  ernployed  in  Australia.  Monopolistic  companies  have  suc- 
coctlcd.  ho\vc\  or.  in  getting-  control  of  large  tracts  in  Algeria,  as 
tlicy  tlid  in  Clerman  Sonlluvest  Africa,  and  holding  them  for  pre- 
posterfHis  jiriccs ;  and  in  Tunis  absenteeism  of  landlords  is  no  uncom- 
mon complaint.  The  cost  to  I""rance  has  been  particularly  severe  in 
Algeria:  it  is  caKuIatcd  that  she  has  spent  there  between  seven  and 
cigiu  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  And  yet,  to  take  only  a  couple  oi 
instances,  the  l-~rcnch  themselves  admit  that  what  they  have  done 
for  education  in  these  colonies  is  entirely  unworthy  of  France;  and 
in  spite  of  heavy  guarantees  to  the  railroads,  tlie  tariffs  of  the  latter 
remain,  for  the  most  part,  proliibitive.  The  French  are,  however, 
hopeful  as  to  the  future  of  both  colonies. 

Any  attcnii)t  to  discuss  the  last  decade  of  African  colonial  his- 
tory would  lack  perspective  if  it  did  not  give  the  bulk  of  its  space  to 
the  I'.ritisli  and  thoir  operations  and  enterprises.  Aside  from  the 
brief  story  of  the  tragic  end  of  Italian  pretensions  to  an  .\l\yssinian 
|)rotectorate.  the  history  of  all  the  rest  of  Africa  since  1895  is  tame 
and  monotonous  compared  with  that  of  Egypt,  and,  above  all,  of 
South  Africa.  The  events  of  this  history  are  in  the  minds  of  all, 
and,  in  tlic  case  of  the  Anglo-Boer  conllict,  at  least,  partisanship  is 
rife;  the  design  of  the  present  treatment  can  scarcely  go  beyond  the 
effort  to  j)lace  an  impartial  interpretation  upon  almost  contemporary 
events.  i^)Ut,  in  order  to  conceive  these  facts  in  the  setting  of  their 
develo])ment,  it  will  be  necessary  to  supply  a  certain  historical  back- 
ground not  provided  for  in  the  original  design  of  this  book.  First, 
tlien.  let  us  consider  tlie  case  of  Egypt. 

The  notable  victory  of  Lord  Kitchener  in  1898  in  the  Egyptian 
Sudan  was  Inil  a  prchulc  to  the  final  act  in  the  inexorable  advance 
of  British  innueiicc  o\cr  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs; 
o\\  as  it  niiglit  w  ith  reason  he  said,  of  the  invasion  of  a  new  north- 
ern race  up<»n  a  degenerate  subtroi)ical  civilization.  After  the  con- 
'[i!e,>L  by  the  Turk-  in  15  17  l^gypt  suffered  tlie  fate  of  all  countries 
V.  h'rh  l:a\c  fallen  l)cneath  their  bigoted,  brutish  rule,  and  for  cen- 
tnne-  '.chelated  in  a  degeneracy  of  civilizatifjii.  In  fact,  from  1500 
i>n  i'^,g>i)t  cut  hut  an  insignificant  figure  in  the  world  until  the  bc- 
ginni'ig  of  the  iinieteenth  century;  the  modern  history  of  the 
coinUry  date^  in  reality  from  tlie  invasion  by  Xapoleon  Bonaparte 
in   1798.     I'.y  i!  a;  f.-ininUr,  and  somewhat  theatrical  expedition  was 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  26T 

1895-1910 

attention  attracted  to  it.  But  the  stay  of  the  French  was  short; 
Bonaparte,  though  successful  in  the  Battle  of  the  Pyramids,  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  Eastern  projects  as  a  consequence  of  Nelson's 
victory  on  the  Xile,  and  by  1801  the  last  of  the  French  soldiers 
had  been  conveyed  home  by  the  British  fleet.  Out  of  the  turmoil, 
however,  that  attended  these  operations  arose  Mohammed  Ali,  a 
dangerous  and  powerful  leader,  later  recognized  l)y  the  sultan  as 
governor  of  Egypt.  He  established  by  energetic  and  barbaric 
measures  a  power  afterward  bequeathed,  at  least  in  name,  to  his 
successors  as  khedives  of  the  province.  Ali  was  a  rebellious  vassal, 
and  it  was  only  through  the  intervention  of  Russia  that  the  Otto- 
man Empire  was  enabled  to  hold  him  in  a  nominal  suljjection;  he 
practically  won  his  independence,  but  paid,  for  form's  sake,  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  sultan.  Ali  thoroughly  reconstructed  the 
government  of  Egypt,  and  his  work  was  carried  on  ])y  the  next 
forceful  member  of  his  line,  his  grandson  Ismail,  who  succeeded  to 
the  rule  in  1863.  The  latter,  liowever,  was  a  man  of  more  reck- 
less stamp;  by  his  extravagance,  and  in  spite  of  pitiless  taxation, 
he  raised  the  debt  of  the  country  from  sixteen  and  one-fourth  to 
four  hundred  million  dollars,  and  later  became  so  hopelessly  in- 
volved in  his  finances  that  England  and  France  were  obliged  to 
intervene  and  assume  control  of  the  country  in  behalf  of  their  bond- 
holders. Ismail  was  forced  to  resign  in  1879  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Tewfik.  The  powers  constituting  the  dual  protectorate  un- 
dertook to  collect  the  taxes,  etc.,  and  to  restore  tlie  country  to  sol- 
vency; the  controllers  appointed  by  these  powers  were  the  real 
rulers  of  the  land. 

But  while  these  reforms  were  being  put  into  operation  the 
whole  situation  was  perturbed  by  the  appearance  on  the  scene  of 
Ahmed  Arabi,  a  military  adventurer,  who  forced  himself  into  the 
ministry  of  war  as  its  head.  An  attempt  to  reduce  this  turbulent 
character  within  bounds  resulted  in  the  stirring  up  of  a  fanatical 
excitement  based  upon  the  rumor  that  Islam  was  in  danger;  an<l 
as  a  conse(|uence  the  lives  and  property  of  foreigners  in  h^^gypt 
were  gravely  menaced.  While  the  Porte  was  tardily  deciding  on 
action,  a  collision  occurred  between  the  British  admiral  and  the 
Arabi  government  which  resulted  in  the  bombardment  of  Alex- 
andria in  July,  1882.  In  .Vugust  of  the  same  year  British  forces 
under  Lord  W'olseley  shattered  Arabi's  power  at  'I'el-el-Kehir. 

During  this  period  France  had  been  unal)le  to  untlertake  the 


J2GS  A  1'  U  1  C  A 

189S-1910 

part  whicli  fell  to  her  nf;  n  joint  member  of  the  dual  protectorate. 
fi>r  the  hand  oi  Ih^marck  still  rested  heavily  upon  the  nation.  Conse- 
(HHT.tly  Great  l^ritain  was  left  alone  as  the  "  policeman  of  Europe  "  ; 
.md  by  varicHis  eventualities,  and  despite  reiterated  assertions  of 
intention  to  exaeuate.  was  oblicfcd  to  remain  in  the  country  year 
after  year.  Durinq;  all  this  period  she  has  had  to  contend,  among^ 
.'ther  thinqs.  with  the  open  or  veiled  jealousy  of  hVance.  The 
latter  felt  that  s!ic  had  lost  advantac^es  and  prestic;-e,  and  let  slip 
no  (>i>portiniity  of  scttinpf  the  powers  by  the  ears  over  the  Egyptian 
situation. 

It  would  be  a  long-  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  tedious  story  to 
rocrunt  the  labors  of  England  in  Egypt.  Nubar  Pasha,  an  en- 
liglitencd  prime  minister  of  ]\ecyj)t,  is  credited  with  the  dictum  that 
Ivgv[)t  needed  two  things — justice  and  water.  P>oth  of  these  have 
been  gi\en  in  more  bountiful  measure  l)y  the  tutelary  power,  and, 
in  adtlitiir.i,  a  successful  race  has  been  run.  under  heavy  handicap, 
against  bankruptcv.  while  the  fellah  has  been  converted  into  a 
trained  and  competent  soldier.  Sanitation  and  hygiene  have  been 
taught  in  sc)me  manner,  the  .g()\-ernmcnt  schools  have  been  regulated. 
U)C  civil  service  improved,  and  a  deal  of  training-  has  been  afforded 
m  g;i  ivernmcnt.  The  enormous  labors  entailed  in  these  brielly 
receiunted  activities  can  be  better  appreciated  by  those  who  will 
read  and  ponder  over  some  such  volume  as  Eord  Milner's  "  Eng- 
land in  ]\gy])t."  Whatever  may  ha\-e  been  the  faults  of  her  admin- 
i-iration.  liingland  has  sent  her  best  men  tcj  b^gypt,  and  they  have 
W'irkcd  desjjcratcly  and  self-sacrificingly  against   formidable  odds. 

Scxcral  of  tiie  most  important  sjiecific  services  ])crformed  may 
be  briefly  recounted.  Justice  was  gi\-en  through  tlie  reorganizatio-:! 
of  corrupt  courts,  and  tlie  establishment  of  the  so-called  Mixed 
Tribunals.  In  th.e  sixties  and  seventies  of  the  last  century  b-gyi)t 
wa-  the  Mecca  of  rogues  of  all  dyes,  and  the  consular  courts  which 
had  {()  do  with  "  foreigners  "  were  incompetent  and  lax.  European 
])]riii-:titis  were  awarded  tlie  most  absurd  and  prej)ostcrons  demands 
ag.'iin-t  n;iti\e  defendants.  Ihit  this  condition  of  affairs  became 
intolerable,  V'>\  only  to  I'",gy])t,  but  io  the  luirojjean  powers  as  \vell, 
-'>  that  ill  iS-T)  a  single  strong  jurisdiction  was  instituted  for  the 
eo;i~:i!:ir  C'-r.rts.  Tlic  Mixed  Tribunals,  as  their  name  implies. 
-ernr(d  hi  t'ic  nati\cs  some  representation  in  cases  which  touched 
\:tal!y  tleir  o\m]  material  wc]fare\  Much  of  the  credit  for  their 
e.-tab'i^l::v.'jr.t    falls  to  lingland,  though   her  power  was  not  then 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  269 

1895  1910  "" 

supreme ;   and  hers  is  the  full  credit  for  their  maintenance  and  de- 
velopment along-  proper  lines  in  the  years  succeeding  1882. 

Another  administrative  betterment  which  may  be  ranked  under 
the  head  of  justice  in  a  broader  sense,  is  that  of  the  system  of 
taxation.  This  is  a  more  intricate  subject  and  is  dealt  with  in 
detail  in  more  special  w^orks.  But  it  may  be  covered  in  brief  by 
the  statement  that  Egypt,  which,  under  Turkish  and  khedival  mis- 
rule, was  ground  down  by  capricious  and  unjust  taxation,  is  now 
prospering  under  a  system  which,  with  all  its  faults  and  still  exist- 
ing severity,  approximates  nearer  and  nearer,  as  time  goes  on,  the 
type  recognized  as  Occidental  and  enlightened. 

The  provision  of  water  called  in  part  for  activities  of  another 
sort,  although  the  same  firm  hand  in  administration,  typified  by 
Lord  Cromer,  had  constantly  to  be  in  evidence.  As  everyone 
knows,  the  life  of  Egypt  through  ages  has  been  tb.e  Nile.  For  the 
earliest  and  most  primitive  contrivances  for  irrigation,  as  well  as 
for  the  gigantic  labors  of  modern  times,  one  idea  has  been  the 
motive  force,  to  supply  an  ever-widening  ripari^ni  area  with  tlie 
life-giving  and  life-supporting  moisture.  In  1833  Mohammed  Ali 
began  a  dam  across  one  branch  of  the  Nile,  at  the  apex  of  the 
delta,  in  order  to  hold  back  a  greater  volume  of  water.  This  scheme 
was  Ijettered  by  the  project  of  Linant  Pasha,  who  proposed  a  regu- 
lating barrage,  intended  to  command  the  distribution  of  water  in 
both  the  Damietta  and  the  Rosetta  branches  during  the  summer, 
but  leaving  free  passage  in  time  of  flood.  By  his  influence  Linant 
at  this  time  saved  the  Pyramids  themselves,  for  the  ruthless  Moham- 
med had  decreed  that  they  should  be  destroyed  to  furnish  stone 
for  his  enterprise.  Preliminary  works  were  l^egun  under  tiic  sys- 
tem of  forced  {corvee)  lal^or  in  1833.  Owing,  hov/ever,  to 
Mohammed's  recklessness  and  impatience,  the  natural  (le\-ek:)pnKMit 
and  selection  of  means  and  methods  were  nnicli  hindered,  and  tlie 
whole  was  not  completed  (under  anotlier  plan)  until  1861.  The 
total  cost  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  $20,000,000,  later  increased 
by  considerable  sums.  But  though  insufficient  in  its  completed 
state,  tlie  dam  was  able  to  hold  back  the  water  to  some  elegrec,  and 
the  result  was  an  increase  of  the  cotton  crop  from  aljout  /_', 000.000 
pounds,  the  figure  for  1861,  to  about  363,000,000  pounds  in  1884. 
The  imperfect  nature  of  the  superstructure,  whicli  In'camc  very  e\  i- 
dent  in  1885,  has  since  that  date  re])catediy  manifested  itself,  so 
that  year  by  year  enonnon.i  >u:ii-  !ia\e  been  expen'Icd  on   i\v;::  - 


j>70  AFRICA 

1893   1910 

and  reconstruction.     The  cotton  crop  has  steadily  risen,  however, 
from   1890  to   1899,  being  in  the  latter  year  about  643,000,000 

pounds. 

The  further  extension  of  the  dam  and  reservoir  system  is 
a  British  achievement  of  the  most  recent  years.  It  was  found  in 
the  middle  nineties  i>f  the  last  century  that  the  barraj^c  had  reached 
its  limit  of  usefulness,  and  conse(|uently  the  country  its  maximum 
of  prosperity  under  then  existing  conditions.  To  render  further 
dcveli^pmcnt  pi^ssible  the  crop  area  must  be  augmented,  and  this 
was  possible  only  under  the  influence  of  a  larger  and  better  regulated 
water-supply.  The  English  undertook,  thereft)rc,  to  build  a  dam 
and  reservoir  far  up  the  river,  across  the  head  of  the  Assuan  cata- 
ract, north  of  I'hilae.  This  was  one  of  the  most  ambitious  engineer- 
ing projects  of  modern  times,  and  its  successful  completion  and 
financing  another  undeniable  triumph  for  the  British  in  Egypt. 

The  foundatiitn  stone  was  laid  Ixbruarv  i-'.  iX()(),  and  the 
dam  was  opened  December  8,  1902.^  These  works,  together  with 
a  J75o-foi^t  barrage  at  Assiut.  cost  between  $100,000,000  and 
$125,000,000.  Tlie  dam  itself  is  about  a  mile  and  a  r|uarter  long 
and  about  100  feet  thick  at  the  base.  The  difference  between  the 
water-level  above  and  below  is  67  feet.  Experts  lia\c  calculated 
tliat  the  reservoir  tlius  formed  will  hold  eiKnigli  water  for  a  year's 
full  supply  to  every  town  and  village  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is 
n  nv  po-.-ible  to  store  water  to  the  extent  of  one  thcjusand  million 
tons:  the  sluices  may  be  opened  earlv  in  ]\Iarch.  and  for  f'lur  months 
a  good  head  c;f  water  for  irrigating  purposes  can  be  maintained. 
Here  is  an  improvement  of  the  most  \ital  kind;  the  habitable  area 
is  pusi'.ed  forward,  as  the  desert  is  driven  back,  and  room  for  ex- 
j)ansion  of  po])ulation  is  afforded.  All  this  means  material  wealth 
and  comfort.  The  most  that  hostile  critics  of  Great  Britain's 
E,gypiian  activity  liave  to  sa}-  is  that  justice  is  not  always  impartial, 
tliat  ilie  Ijigii<hmen  have  their  eyes  on  the  main  chance,  that  some 
of  il-.em  are  rogues  and  almost  all  are  arrogant.  But  these  are 
inevitable,  natural,  and  social  characteristics,  .and  are  of  distinctly 
inferior  cnseqiicnce  as  c mipared  with  the  actual  advances  in  civ- 
iiizaii^n  v.hich  the  E.nglisli  ha\e  made  p(»ssil)lc. 

l-gypt,  though  nomhially  a  pro\  ince  of  ilie  Turkish  Empire, 
lia-  I'-ng  been  in  reality  a  potential  protectorate  of  Great  Britain. 

i:;.<iill!r  aht;i'!  cf  e'.!,tr:i  '   •■     • 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  271 

1695-1910 

But  the  action  that  set  the  seal  upon  Egypt  was  that  Sudan  cam- 
paign of  Lord  Kitchener  of  which  the  closing  years  of  the  last  cen- 
tury heard  so  much.  From  most  ancient  times  the  connection  be- 
tween Egypt  and  the  Eastern  Sudan  has  been  of  the  closest; 
Rameses  II.  is  said  to  have  first  annexed  the  latter  to  the  former. 
In  more  recent  times  Mohammed  AH  had  sent  his  son  ( 1819)  to  seize 
and  pacify  the  Sudan;  and  in  1870  Ismail  pushed  the  frontier  to  the 
equator.  Until  1882  Egyptian  power  in  this  region  was  all  but 
unquestioned.  In  the  latter  year  occurred  the  ]\Iahdist  revolt,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  southern  provinces  were  for  the  time  being 
lost.  The  Mahdi,  nominally  a  sort  of  Messiah  whose  advent  was 
expected  as  a  herald  of  the  latter  days,  was  in  reality  an  astute  leader 
who  worked  upon  the  blind  religious  fanaticism  of  the  rude  type  of 
Mohammedans  who  occupied  the  Egyptian  Sudan.  The  Mahdi 
with  whom  we  are  dealing  (for  there  were  several  others)  was,  as 
was  natural  in  a  Messiah,  a  leader  in  denunciation  of  the  extortion 
of  the  Turkish  Government.  He  gathered  a  large  and  enthusiastic 
following,  many  of  them  dervishes,  who  held  life  in  contempt  and 
regarded  death  in  battle  against  unbelievers  as  the  surest  road  to 
eternal  bliss.  He  was  utterly  underrated  by  the  Egyptian  Gov- 
ernment until  his  strength  had  grown  to  menacing-  proportions. 
Then  several  victories  of  the  Mahdi  induced  the  government  to 
send  out  Hicks  Pasha  with  a  rabble  of  undisciplined  troops,  in- 
cluding Turkish  mercenaries  and  the  scum  of  the  towns.  This 
force  was  annihilated  in  Kordofan  in  1883;  and  soon  afterward 
followed  the  surrender  of  Slatin  Bey  in  Darfur,  the  destruction  of 
Baker  Pasha's  army,  and  otlier  reverses.  Discretion  played  no 
part  in  the  disposition  of  the  Egyptian  Government,  for  it  was  only 
by  the  urgency  of  Lord  Cromer  that  renunciation  of  the  Sudan  was 
forced  upon  it  in  1884.  This  was  followed  by  the  mission  of  Gen- 
eral Gordon,  who  was  to  report  upon  the  situation  in  the  Sudan. 
upon  the  best  mode  of  evacuation,  and  of  securing  the  safety  and 
good  administration  of  the  coast  districts.  The  tragic  death  of 
Gordon  at  his  post  two  days  ijefore  the  relief-force  dispatched  by 
the  tardy  British  Government  arrived  is  an  occurrence  well  known 
and  much  lamented.  The  net  result  of  all  these  rexerscs  was  tliat 
the  lower  boundary  of  Egyj)t  was  now  fixed  at  Wadi  Haifa, 
and  all  south  of  that  point  was  abandoned  to  tlie  Mahdi,  that  is. 
to  barbarism  and  degeneracy.  This,  says  Lord  Milner,  was  the 
result  of  the  "limited  liability  system"  of  the  British  in   Egyi)i, 


i^T'^  A 1'  11 1  c  A 

1895  1910 

But  if  the  prudence  oi  the  Brilisli  counseled  a  retirement  from 
a  position  no  Imitjer  tenahle.  it  was  with  no  idea  of  ultimate 
ahand'mincnt.  hut  rather  of  renewed  and  hetter  ort^ani/.ed  effort. 
Purint::  the  thirteen  years  that  intervened  hetwecn  tiie  evacuation 
of  the  Sudan  and  the  l)attle  of  Omdurman  preparations  of  the 
most  far-sij^htod  and  careful  nature  were  heinj^  made  to  insure 
tlio  complete  :ind  overwhelming  sujieriority  of  I^gypt  in  its  old 
dominions;  for  it  was  essential  to  the  country,  living  as  it  did  on 
tlic  hounty  of  its  one  river,  that  the  sources  of  the  latter  should  be 
the  property  of  none  other  than  itself.  Toward  regaining  the  old 
nro\  inccs  one  of  the  first  measures  was  the  reorganization  of  the 
l-'gvjitian  army,  with  the  result  that  the  fellaheen  soldiers  who 
tied  shamefully  before  the  dervishes  in  the  I  Ticks  disaster,  learned 
to  stand  and  resist  in  a  truly  soldierly  way;  and  to  the  Egyptian 
regiments  were  added  others  composed  of  the  wild  and  fearless 
Sudanese  blacks.  Arrangements  were  also  made  to  secure  co- 
fjicralion  on  the  part  of  the  Italians  from  Kassala — arrangements 
which  would  doubtless  have  proved  of  avail  had  it  not  been  for  the 
disaster  to  tlie  Italian  arms  in  i^c)C>. 

After  preparations  along  all  lines,  which  rendered  Kgvpt  north 
of  W'adi  Haifa  secure  as  it  had  never  been  before,  the  final  cam- 
I):iign  against  the  AFahdists  began  in  March,  1896,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Herbert  Kitchener.  It  is  imjiossiblc  here  to  detail 
t'.ic  measures  which  rendered  Kitclicncr's  advance  only  a  degree 
Ic-s  sure  tlian  the  forces  of  nature  tiiomscl-s-cs.  11ie  Sirdar  was 
a  man  of  iron,  and  his  system  was  a  skill  fill,  patient,  inexorable 
"V.v.  Among  liis  most  remarkable  acliie\'cnicnts  was  the  construc- 
li'in  (if  the  desert  railroad  south  from  W'adi  Haifa,  to  which,  as 
.'ittording  an  ciTicient  su])port  to  e\'cry  onward  mo\-cment,  the  cam- 
jriign  owed  much  of  its  success.  Amid  continuous  engagements, 
^niall  and  great,  this  wrjrk  was  resolutely  .'id\:ince(l  until  the  line 
•f.'ichcd  t!ic  Xile  at  Abu  Hamcd,  203  miles  acoss  the  desert  from 
\\  adi  Haifa.  After  the  victory  of  Atbara  it  was  extended  178 
miles  lurih.er.  and  tlie  final  is^ue  of  the  oncoming  struggle  was 
thu-<  rtiidcrcd  ])ei-fectly  sure  and  evident  in  a<i\ance.  On  S('])tem- 
I'cr  J  occurred  the  battle  of  Omdm-man  and  tlic  deslniction  of  the 
M.'didi^t  power.  The  next  day  a  religious  service  was  held  at  Khar- 
nrn.  wlierc  CImI'Imu  had  fallen,  'i'he  Mahdi  had  died  some  years 
''(•!' -re.  .and  althonL^Ii  the  new  leader,  the  so-called  Khalifa,  escaped, 
I.'  :n;)!ete  i>ac;fication  was  the  work  of  but  a  short  time.     The  vSirdar 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  273 

1895-1910 

was  appointed  governor-general  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  January 
19,  1899.  The  Khalifa  was  finally  defeated  and  slain  in  South 
Kordofan  in  November,  1899,  and  his  active  lieutenant,  Osman 
Digna,  was  captured  early  in  1900. 

Thus  was  the  Sudan  province  secured  for  Egypt  through  Brit- 
ish aid  and  direction.  It  could  not  be  otherwise  than  that  the 
British  hold  on  Egypt  was  hereby  strengthened;  it  was  explicitly 
admitted  by  Lord  Salisbury  that  Kitchener's  victory  totally  changed 
the  face  of  things,  and  there  were  many  who  looked  for  the  imme- 
diate proclamation  of  the  Egyptian  protectorate.  This,  however, 
did  not  take  place ;  the  British  and  the  Eg3^ptian  flags  float  together 
over  the  recovered  country,  and  England  is  still  the  adviser- 
nation. 

The  benefits  which  England  has  given  Egypt  have  been  briefly 
referred  to  above;  what  she  did  for  her  in  the  operations  of  1896- 
1898  may  be  best  told  in  the  words  of  the  victor  himself:  "You 
may  take  it,  that  during  the  two  and  a  half  years'  campaign  extra 
military  credits  to  the  amount  of  two  and  a  half  millions  have  been 
expended.  In  this  sum  I  have  included  the  recent  grant  for  the 
extension  of  the  railway  from  Atbara  to  Khartum,  the  work  of 
which  is  already  in  hand.  Well,  against  this  large  expenditure  we 
have  some  assets  to  show;  we  have,  or  shall  have,  760  miles  of  rail- 
ways, properly  equipped  with  engines,  rolling  stock,  and  a  track 
with  bridges  in  good  order.  .  .  .  Well,  for  this  running  con- 
cern I  do  not  think  that  three  thousand  pounds  a  mile  will  be  con- 
sidered too  high  a  figure.  This  represents,  two  and  a  quarter  milHons 
out  of  the  money  granted,  and  for  the  other  quarter  of  a  million  we 
have  two  thousand  miles  of  telegraph  line,  six  new  gunboats,  besides 
barges,  sailing-craft,  and — the  Sudan." 

It  has  been  intimated  that  the  activity  of  Great  Britain  in 
Egypt  is  unpalatable  to  a  considerable  party  within  the  country 
itself.  The  greater  part  of  recent  British  troubles  have  conic  from 
the  young  Khedive  xVbbas  Hilnii,  who  succeeded  Tewfik  in  Janu- 
ary, 1892,  and  who  proceeded  straightway  to  adopt,  not  the  con- 
ciliatory and  progressive  policy  of  his  father,  Ijut  the  arbitrary, 
extravagant  and  high-handed  programme  of  Ismail.  A  consicleral)le 
number  of  malcontents  have  been,  of  course,  always  ready  to  work 
through,  or  in  cooperation  with,  tlic  khedive,  and  though  iMigl.Mi'l 
can  doubtless  carry  through  any  measures  which  it  may  ]i!ca:H'  Iicr 
to  advocate,  this  o])position  is  at  times  very  irritating  and  irk.somc. 


j>7+  AFRICA 

1S9S-1910 

I-'ng:lan{l  has  likewise  been  obligfcd  to  meet  old  French  pretensions 
anil  jcalonsics.  the  latest  prominent  exhibition  of  which  occurred 
in  connecti(Mi  with  the  so-called  h'ashoda  affair.  Dnrinj;f  the  difli- 
cnltics  in  the  Sudan,  just  related,  the  Trench  had  improved  the 
opjxirtnnity  to  move  up  along  the  White  Nile  to  the  town  of 
i^ishoda.  Here  the  British,  when  they  were  reducing  the  long- 
abandoned  province  to  order,  f(»und  Major  Marchand  ensconced. 
Vor  a  time  it  looked  like  war  between  the  two  powers,  but  the 
determined  stand  taken  by  the  British  in  sending  Marchand  about 
his  business  made  it  perfectly  evident  to  France  that  she  was  deeply 
in  earnest;  and  a  prompt  acquiescence  was  the  result.  The  Anglo- 
I'Vench  understanding  alluded  to  above,  while  treating  of  Morocco, 
practically  waives  b^-cnch  claims  in  Fgypt.  If  in  return  for  such 
shadowy  rights  I'rance  shall  have  obtained  real  privileges  in  Mo- 
rocco, she  will  have  struck  a  very  advantageous  bargain. 

I'Igypt  is.  then,  to  Great  Britain  something  between  a  sphere 
of  influence  and  a  protectorate;  it  is  virtually  a  British  possession, 
for  no  serious  objection  could  be  sustained  against  the  declaration 
of  a  Britisli  protectorate  over  the  country.  Whatever  may  be  said 
in  bluster  or  in  anger,  a  sense  of  justice  would  concede  to  England 
an  (ncrwhclming  interest  in  the  lands  and  peo])le  among  which 
she  lias  so  long  lal)ored  as  guardian  and  tutor.  Tliis  being  the 
case,  the  real  "  occui)ation  "  of  Egypt  will  probably  be  put  od  till 
circumstances  seem  ])eremptorily  to  demand  it;  for  the  Iiritish  have 
been  characterized  in  their  colonial  activity  by  a  disposition  to 
procrastinate  rather  than  to  anticii)ate  in  such  matters. 

We  now  come  to  the  most  considerable  event  in  contemporary 
African  liistory.  the  conf|uest  of  tlie  B(^er  I\e])ublics.  and  their  con- 
\er<ion  into  British  Cfjlonies.  Tliis  constitutes  a  series  of  events 
wh.ich  is  comprehensible  onlv  in  the  light  of  antecedent  Soutli 
African  history.  It  is  manifestly  impossil)le  in'  a  work  of  tliis 
nature  to  more  tlian  brietly  summarize  this  pa^t ;  tlie  reader  who 
\\"u!(l  know  more,  and  in  more  detail,  is  referred  U)  the  m.any 
excellent  writers,  for  the  most  part  accessible  in  luiglish,  who  deal 
exhaustively  with  the  subject. 

Tlie  cardinal  facts  to  be  considered,  if  one  would  form  an 
impartial  judgment,  on  the  basis  of  broad  issues,  of  the  .Anglo- 
i;"cr  (IitViculiic>  and  final  conflict,  are  two:  the  character  of  the 
l*'>er  ]ji  jjulati  .11.  wliicii  is  largely  a  function  of  its  j)liysical  einiron- 
"5'''".    :-'  "iic  i.atinc  of  ilic  aggre-i>!oii  whicli  it  was  foiced  to  meet. 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  275 

1895  1910  "^ 

The  natural  environment  of  the  Boers  may  be  briefly  covered  by 
the  statements  of  James  Bryoe  that  the  region  south  of  tlie  Zam- 
bezi is  nearly  one-half  desert,  of  about  the  quality  of  the  sage- 
brush area  of  Nevada;  and  that  of  the  remainder,  by  far  the  larger 
part,  is  much  too  dry  for  agriculture,  resembling  in  its  nature  the 
ranching  districts  of  Wyoming,  ^Migration,  as  a  rule,  will  not 
pay,  and  there  is  no  forest  area.  Tlie  country  is  suited  to  a  pas- 
toral and  semi-nomadic  population,  and  to  no  other.  From  this 
it  follows  that  the  mining  settlements  which  formed  so  speedily 
after  the  discovery  of  diamonds  at  Kimberley  (1870)  and  of 
gold  at  the  Witwatersrand  (1884),  are  by  their  nature  epliemeral. 
and  not  likely  to  pass  into  the  form  of  a  settlement-colony  until 
several  other  sparsely  inhabited  areas  of  the  world  are  better  filled, 
or  until  the  arts  of  life  are  considerably  advanced.  That  is,  the 
Boer  population  is  the  one  best  fitted  to  the  environment  in  ques- 
tion, the  only  one,  really,  that  has  demonstrated  its  ability  to  live 
and  reproduce  under  such  unfavorable  conditions. 

Concerning  this  Boer  people  much  has  been  written  from  an 
unscientific  standpoint  of  enmity  or  partisanship.  This  may  be 
set  aside  in  toto.  Approaching  the  matter  from  the  standpoint 
of  antecedent  history  and  human  evolution,  the  following  con- 
siderations emerge:  seventeenth  century  population,  composed  in 
no  small  degree  of  Dutch  Calvinists  (and  later  of  Huguenots). 
were,  for  one  reason  or  another  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  home- 
system,  dri\en  across  the  seas.  These  recalcitrants  were  at  first 
irritated,  retarded,  and  oppressed  by  the  incompetent  and  selfish 
Dutch  East  India  Company  until  they  receded  farther  and  farther 
from  the  coast,  and  plunged  ever  more  deeply  into  a  rude  and 
harsh  natural  environment,  wherein  they  came  int(3  contact  with 
a  grade  of  civilization,  or  non-civilization,  much  crutler  and  coarser 
than  their  own.  Like  all  other  frontier  societies  placed  in  similar 
conditions  and  almost  wholly  segregated  from  the  outside  world. 
they  sank  in  large  degree  to  the  level  of  their  surroundings.  In 
the  case  of  the  Dutch  this  led  to  an  exaggeration  in  the  rigidity 
and  severity  of  the  one  element  in  their  previous  life  which  they 
were  enabled  to  retain — their  religion. 

All  this  was  particularly  true  of  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal, 
as  the  farthest  removed  from  cixilization,  and  proportionately  le-^s 
evident  in  respect  to  those  of  the  Orango  Vvcq  St.ate  and  of  Cape 
Colony  itself.     This  biluati<jn  persisted  iiUo  the  ])erio(l  of  the  g"'-' 


276  AFRICA 

189S-1910 

iliscoven'es.  In  1880  the  bulk  of  the  Boers  of  the  Republics  were,  to 
most  intents  am!  j)urposcs,  of  a  pronounced  seventeenth-century 
type  of  civilization:  indeed,  in  many  cases  tliey  were  inferior  in 
education.  q;cncral  culture,  etc..  to  the  ll(illanders.  and  especially 
ti>  the  Ilut,nicn()ts,  from  whom  they  derived  their  descent.  One 
author  says  they  were  "  narrow,  strong,  tyrannical,  and  pious.  Their 
inulls  have  been  born  of  their  virtues,  and  their  virtues  of  their 
faults,  and  both  faults  and  virtues  have  resulted  from  the  condi- 
tions oi  their  life  and  the  mixture  of  their  blood."  This  is  a 
good  statement  of  a  part  of  the  truth ;  it  should  be  supplemented  by 
soiue  portrayal  of  their  actual  manners  and  customs  and  mode 
of  living,  in  order  to  unfold  its  implications.  The  Boers'  organiza- 
tion of  industry  was  primitive,  their  trade  petty  and  of  the  barter- 
type,  and  of  progress  in  the  arts  there  was  practically  none.  They 
wore  self-satisfied,  and  callous  to  the  feelings  and  sufferings  of 
otlicrs.  Sexual  morality  was  lax,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  number 
of  Dutch  half-breeds,  or  Bastards;  and  matrimony  was  based  upon 
t!ie  sordid  motives  and  exhibited  the  conjugal  relations  character- 
istic oi  a  low  civilization.  Government  was  of  a  patriarchal,  des- 
potic type  and  of  a  limited  range,  as  is  inevitable  in  a  loosely-knit 
pastoral  community;  laws  were  unstable  and  easily  and  capri- 
ciously alterable.  To  the  very  last  the  executive  was  not  bound  by 
tlie  courts,  but  readily  and  with  impunity  overrode  them.  Finally, 
tlic  li'icr  religion,  over  which  sentimental  people  have  become  en- 
tlnisir.siic  and  which  drew  to  the  subjects  of  President  Kriiger 
t!:i-  unintelligent  sympathy  of  the  undiscriminating  and  uninformed, 
is  but  little  removed  from  the  stern  and  uncompromising  faith  of 
tliai  fierce  "  chosen  people  ''  whose  after-type  the  Boers  have  con- 
ceived il.eni.scKes  to  be.  The  ideal  man  was  Joshua,  who  smote 
his  enemie>  hip  and  thigh,  aiul  the  ideal  deity  was  not  Christ,  but 
the  .'lucient  Jahveh  of  the  savage  Semitic  tribes.  Piety  was  of 
t'l'.e  ritr.aii>iic.  formal,  and  \erbal  sort,  and  like  Boer  "  democracy," 
re-er..i)!ed  tlie  iNpe  uilli  which  the  l)oers  were  t(X)  often  credited 
ill  iLMue  rather  than  in  essence.  With  perfect  candor  and  in 
iio  lii;-ii'e  sen>e,  the  majority  of  the  Boers  might  well  have  been 
styled,  as  llution  graphically  denominated  them,  "mental  mum- 
mies." 

'i'liis  !.-,  one  side  of  tiie  picture;  to  an  American  of  these 
latter  day>  :i  dcM-ripiion  ol'  the  aggression  to  which  these  peasant 
larmer-    \',  e:c   -r.hiecied   i>  scarcelv   neccssarv.      lie  can   fill    in   the 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  ^7 

189S-I910 

details  for  himself.  For  no  American  is  without  experience  of  the 
restless  and  often  unscrupulous  energy  of  modern  industrial  enter- 
prise and  its  promotion.  When  to  this  disquieting  element  were 
added  the  confusion,  recklessness,  and  rascality  which  attend  the 
opening  of  mining  operations  for  precious  stones  and  ores — even 
though  these  latter  were,  chiefly  because  of  the  peculiar  nature 
of  the  gold-reefs,  far  from  extreme  in  form,  in  the  Transvaal — 
some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  consternation  with  which  the 
conservative  Boer  people  viewed  their  prospective  fellow-citizens 
and  the  latters'  projects. 

The  conflict  between  Boer  and  foreigner  resolved  itself  shortly 
into  one  of  civilizations  rather  than  of  races ;  if  the  struggles  in 
South  Africa  appear  to  many  to  have  been  due  to  the  friction 
attendant  upon  the  contact  of  races,  this  is  chiefly  because  the 
so-called  races  represented  distinct  and  incompatible  stages  of 
civilization.  For  the  more  modern  of  these  stages  Great  Britain 
stood  as  champion;  but  it  must  be  realized  that  the  British  were 
not  the  onl}'-  aggrieved  parties;  being  in  the  majority,  they  repre- 
sented a  body  of  malcontents  which  contained,  among  members 
of  other  nationalities,  a  number  of  Americans.  If  one  is  to  pass 
on  the  merits  of  the  actual  contentions  of  the  two  parties,  which 
is  as  yet  an  extremely  difficult  matter  for  others  than  the  vendors 
of  snap-judgments,  the  following  consideration  should  never  be 
lost  sight  of,  namely,  that  sympathy  leans  predominantly  to  tlie 
side  of  those  who  are  conceived  to  be  fighting  for  liberty  and  re- 
ligion, especially  if  they  are  fewer  in  number  and  are  defending 
their  own  hearth-stones.  Among  Americans  it  is  likewise  the 
rule  that  sympath}^  is  felt  for  a  "  sister-repuljlic."  if  it  is  conceived 
to  be  undergoing  oppression  at  the  hands  of  a  monarchical  })0\ver. 
No  careful  man  should  allow  himself  to  be  influenced  by  such 
catch-words;  he  should  realize  that  the  case  of  Briton  and  Uoer 
alike  must  depend  upon  the  "  cumulative  effect  of  a  large  nnnil)cr 
of  dry  and  often  teclmical  details,"  for  llie  sifting  of  wliich  the 
hand  of  time  and  the  arduous  labor  of  the  candid  historian  are 
all-essential. 

One  fact  early  became  patent  to  tlic  Boers,  by  tl;cir  mode  of 
life  rendered  self-sufficing  and  impatient  of  interference:  that  they 
would  soon  be  far  outnumbered  by  tlie  swarming  prosi)ectors  and 
immigrant  adventurers.  They  could  not  kcej)  tlie  latter  out  a 
the  country — indeed  for  fiscal  and  other  reasons  they  desired  Ihcir 


278  A  F  R  I  r  A 

1695-1910 

presence — but  tliey  coiikl  exclude  ihein  from  political  power,  and 
that,  as  the  first  and  most  evident  recourse,  they  tried  to  do.  It 
was  not  that  they  clearly  foresaw  that  the  miners  and  prospectors 
were,  by  the  very  nature  of  their  employment  and  motive  of  com- 
ins^,  an  ephemeral  clement  in  the  population,  sure  to  disappear  when 
either  a  fortune  was  made  or  the  metal  deposits  exhausted;  they 
simply  desired  a  maintenance  of  the  status  quo  ante  of  the  political 
power,  and  they  held  to  it  awkwardly  and  arbitrarily,  but  not 
without  a  certain  strong  right  and  justification.  Neither  side  was 
able  to  understand  the  other,  even  if  both  had  been  patient  and 
sincere,  for  too  many  decades  of  development  lay  between.  The 
situation  resolved  itself,  therefore,  into  a  desperate  defensive  on  the 
part  of  the  political  "  ins  "  (the  Boers)  and  an  even  more  energetic 
and  often  unscrupulous  ofifensive  on  the  part  of  the  preponderant 
number  of  political  "outs"  (the  Uitlanders,^  or  aliens).  It  was 
into  this  struggle  that  the  British  Government  was  finally  drawn, 
as  champion  of  the  *' outs." 

The  collision  of  tlicse  two  civilizations  issued,  then,  in  a  com- 
bat for  political  Dower ;  it  was  the  increasingly  wider  oscillations 
between  tactics.^  Boer  restrictions  and  Uitlander  resistance  thereto, 
which  was  generally  ecjually  tactless,  that  made  the  situation  in- 
creasingly intolerable  for  both  parties.  But  it  should  not  for  a 
moment  be  K)St  sight  of,  in  one's  disgust  at  the  narrowness  of 
many  of  ilie  Boers,  that  capitalistic  agitation  and  the  auri  sacra 
fames  contributed  only  too  often  the  motive  force  of  Uitlander 
resistance,  destroyed  again  and  again  the  slow  growth  of  relations 
of  mutual  tolerance,  and  finally  led  the  bin-ghers,  through  the  in- 
flcfen-iblc  Jameson  Raid,  to  an  exasperation  which,  in  their  stub- 
born minds,  toc;k  on  the  form  of  implacable,  irreconcilable  hostility 
to  modern  ci\ilization  and  to  progress  in  all  its  forms.  By  the 
stress  of  conllict  each  of  the  types  in  conflict  was  forced  to  an 
extreme. 

\'iewcd  fr<jm  this  broad  and  general  standpoint,  it  becomes 
almost  irrelc\ani  to  pronounce  upon  the  right  or  wrong  of  Boer  or 
alien  in  what  w;i>  to  follow.  The  Boer  represented  the  type  suited 
to  the  Ifjcal  en\  ironment,  the  stranger  the  type  suited  to  the  modern 
wtjrld.  The  latter  was  sure,  by  wliatcxer  means,  at  least  tem- 
porarily and  while  its  absorbing  interest  in  the  country  lasted,  to 
predominate;    in  all  human  jjnjbability  it  will  prevail  in  the  end, 

'■  IVono-.incL'd    (approximately)    "  oj't-lahndcrs." 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  279 

1895-1910 

whatever  the  fate  of  the  gold-fields  may  be.  And  the  Boer,  like 
the  native  races,  must  fall  in  with  the  current  of  the  world-move- 
ment or  disappear. 

The  conflict  and  outcome  being  thus  inevitable,  the  exact 
manner  in  which  each  evolved  itself  becomes,  though  important,  in 
a  sense  subsidiary  and  of  less  engrossing  interest.  The  actual 
events  which  led  up  to  the  war  can  be  only  briefly  sketched  in 
this  chapter.  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  the  Boer  Republics  would 
now  be  British  colonies  if  no  gold  discoveries  had  taken  place ;  it 
was  the  influx  of  the  foreigners  that  brought  on  the  crisis  of 
war. 

There  was,  however,  plenty  of  friction  before  the  eighties.  The 
British  never  got  along  well  with  the  Boers :  the  latter  are  difficult 
for  any  civilized  nation  to  endure,  and  it  is  significant  that  the 
Germans  and  the  French,  who  need  settlers  for  Southwest  yVfricaand 
for  Madagascar,  though  they  have  discussed  the  feasibility  of  in- 
viting or  encouraging  the  Boers,  have  decided,  in  view  of  their 
turbulent  character,  not  to  do  so.  The  British  have  also,  it  must  be 
admitted,  made  an  exceptional  numlDcr  of  errors  from  the  outset 
in  dealing  with  the  Boers.  "  England,"  says  Br}ce,  referring  to  the 
early  period.  "  managed  things  ill.  She  altered  the  system  of  courts 
and  local  government,  reducing  the  rights  which  tlie  ])copIe  had 
enjoyed.  She  insisted  on  the  use  of  the  English  language  to  the 
exclusion  of  Dutch.  In  undertaking  to  protect  the  natives  and  the 
slaves,  whom  the  Dutch  were  accusecl  by  the  l^nglish  missionaries 
of  treating  very  harshly,  she  did  what  was  right,  but  the  farmers 
complained  that  the  missionaries  sometimes  maligned  them  and 
greatly  resented  the  attention  which  was  ]);iid  to  the  charges. 
Finally,  she  abolished  slaver}-  and  allotted  a  very  inadequate  sum  as 
compensation  to  the  South  African  slave-owners,  much  of  which 
sum  never  reached  their  hands,  because  it  was  made  payable  in 
London," 

In  later  times  England  annexed  tlie  Transvaal  (i^//)  against 
the  will  of  a  large  number  of  the  inhabilaiUs ;  and  though  this 
move  saved  the  country  from  utter  bankruptcy  and  was  personally 
approved  by  President  Burgers,  the  benefits  conferred  were  more 
than  outweighed  in  Doer  minds  by  the  arrogant  policy  which 
ensued.  Taxes  were  levied  stringcntiv  upon  a  j)co[)!c  who  had  al- 
ways resisted  all  taxation:  .and  delay  in  iM\ing  iwr  l^cal  go\cni- 
ment  was  S'J  great  as  lo  cau>e  llic  people  to  despair  (U  c\cr  gcitin.t; 


280  AFRICA 

1895-1910 

it.  Finally,  with  an  excess  of  political  impotence,  the  Gladstone 
Government  placed  itself  in  the  position  of  awardinc^  to  a  temporarily 
successful  armed  resistance  what  it  had  refused  just  before  to 
peaceful  rejiresentations.  All  the  bitterness  of  former  years  re- 
mained ;  and  it  was  now  mingled  with  contempt  for  what  appeared 
to  be  duplicity  and  cowardice. 

The  two  republics  were  left  (  1881  and  1884)  in  what  they  at 
least  considered  complete  independence.  During  the  period  of 
lukewarmncss  toward  colonial  exi)ansion  preceding  the  i)anic-time 
ushercil  in  by  the  iiand  of  Bismarck,  this  arrangement  was  regarded 
l)y  the  British  Government  as  at  least  endurable.  But  with  the 
recrudescence  of  colonial  activity  it  appeared  to  many  that  the 
existence  of  these  unsettled  and  still  hostile  societies  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  newly  accpiired  British  possessions  constituted  a  real 
danger  to  the  well-being  of  the  empire  in  South  Africa.  About 
this  time  came  the  gold  discoveries  and  the  arrival  of  a  horde  of 
f(*reigners  in  the  almost  primitive  Transvaal.  The  Boer  Govern- 
ment of  this  republic  (with  which  we  are  mostly  concerned,  for 
tlie  Orange  State  was  comparatively  aloof  from  the  theater  of 
action,  and  was  on  the  whole  friendly  to  the  British)  began  its 
restrictive  measures  with  tlie  imposition  of  heavy  fiscal  dues,  not 
only  upon  th.e  allotment  of  concessions,  but  upon  the  means  of 
exploitation  and  existence  of  the  incomers  such  as  cement,  dynamite, 
and  food.  In  return  for  a  hea\y  taxation  it  secured  for  the  popu- 
lation practically  none  of  the  necessities  and  comforts  of  a  civilized 
government.  Sanitation  was  unknown;  municipal  works  were 
ci  .ntemptuously  neglected ;  the  police  were  ignorant,  brutal,  and 
ci^rrupt,  and  often  more  to  l)e  feared  tlian  tliose  from  whom  they 
were  sujjposcd  to  prcjtect  life  and  property.  Despite  continued 
remonstrance,  alcohol  was  allowed  to  enter  the  mining  district  in 
large  quantities,  thus  demoralizing  the  labor  supply  at  the  mines. 
The  government  likewise  accentuated  the  differences  of  race  and 
C!\ih/ation  by 'blocking  a  natural  development  of  the  educational 
sy-tcin  toward  tlie  employment  and  teaching  of  I-'nglish.  In  fact, 
n»  reasMiialjic  a(l\-ance  in  education  and  schools  ccnild  be  exj)ected 
irum  a  pC'ijjlc  of  sucli  amazing  ignorance  and  illiteracy. 

'llic  I'.oers  clung  to  tlie  reins  of  political  power  through  the 
expedient  of  cle\riting  and  complicating  the  requirements  of  citi- 
zenship; ihi<.  of  cour:^c.  was  the  \  ital  point,  as  was  recognized 
bv  l.iolh    Trc-idcnt    1~'; ''i-'ci-   aiid   .Sir   .Mfred   Milncr   in   their   later 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  9Sl 

1895-1910 

conferences;  given  the  franchise  on  any  terms  comparable  to  those 
in  vogue  in  other  states,  and  the  Uitlanders  could  redress  their 
own  grievances.  Meanwhile  the  Boer  Government  drew  a  revenue 
from  the  foreigners  totally  out  of  proportion  to  its  former  slender 
income,  and,  since  it  accorded  these  no  real  part  in  the  government, 
it  appeared  to  them  to  be  fattening  upon  them  like  a  huge  para- 
site.^ Thus  from  the  apparently  unfavorable  soil  of  vaunted  Boer 
integrity  and  piety  there  sprang  up  a  rank  growth  of  sordid  corrup- 
tion which  cannot  be  explained  away. 

The  political  power  remained  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands 
of  the  old  burghers,  and  it  was  wielded  with  redoubled  severity 
after  the  Jameson  Raid  of  December,  1895,  had,  by  the  unscrupu- 
lousness  and  precipitancy  of  Rhodes  and  his  lieutenant,  put  Kriiger 
ostensibly  in  the  right  and  absolutely  cut  off  all  chance  of  reform. 
In  view  of  a  conflict  seen  by  the  Boer  authorities  to  be  inevitable, 
augmented  revenues  derived  from  exorbitant  charges  on  the  aliens 
and  their  enterprises  were  applied  in  providing  the  apparatus  of 
war.  The  Orange  State  had  meanwhile  thrown  in  its  lot  with  that 
of  the  fellow-republic  whose  acts  it  had  so  often  disapproved,  but 
whose  civilization  and  fate  were  thought  to  be  its  own. 

Meanwhile  the  Uitlanders  had  stirred  up  British  irritation  by 
the  story  of  their  woes  at  the  hands  of  the  Boers — whose  side, 
naturally  enough,  was  not  known,  or  was  ignored.  The  franchise 
became  the  apple  of  final  discord,  representing  as  it  did  more  real, 
but  less  concrete  and  conclusive  objects  of  strife.  The  current 
toward  war  soon  waxed  too  strong,  however,  for  confinement  of 
any  kind ;  in  spite  of  belated  Boer  concessions,  the  candor  of  which, 
as  emanating  from  President  Kriiger,  was  always  in  doubt,  the 
conflict  drew  on.  The  necessary  increase  of  the  insuflicient  British 
garrisons  in  South  Africa  became  apparent  to  the  Boers,  and,  judg- 
ing the  time  to  be  ripe,  they  put  forth  an  insolent  and  pretentious 
ultimatum  (October  9,  1899),  whose  non-acceptance  was  followed 
by  a  Boer  invasion  of  the  soutliern  colonies. 

The  story  of  the  war  and  its  outcome  is  well  known.  Starting 
out  with  jaunty  confidence  that  a  parade  to  Pretoria,  where  the 
Christmas-time  would  be  spent,  would  settle  the  whole  difi'iculty. 
the  British  finished  by  spending  some  thirty  months,  considerably 

■^The  Uitlanders  were  60,000  In  the  T'.ocrs' 30,000,  accordiiif,- to  Kni-n's 
own  estimate;  they  owned  three-fifths  uf  the  land  in  the  country  and  paid 
nine-tenths  of  the  taxation. 


28« 


A  1'  U  I  C  A 


1895-1906 

over  $i.(X)0.ooo,ooo.''  and  100,000  lives  in  the  struj^gle.  Faults  of 
arniv  oi\i;ani/ntion  and  awkward  stratcg"y  revealed,  to  the  surprise 
of  the  uninitiated,  the  antiquated  character  of  the  British  army. 
The  most  disastrous  fault  of  this  ortjatiizalion  was  its  incapacity 
for  adaptation  to  the  local  war-conditions.  In  some  respects  the 
reverses  of  Ihaddock  in  America  were  lived  over  again,  for  the 
attempt  was  i)ersistently  made  to  wage  warfare  of  the  luiropean 
type  against  antagonists  who  em])loyed  a  system  almost  as  primi- 
tive as  that  of  the  I-'rench  and  Indians.  The  Boers,  though  drilled 
and  instructed  on  the  eve  of  war  by  iM'cnch  and  other  tacticians  of 
the  highest  rank,  were  uniformly  unsuccessful  in  general  mass- 
engagements,  and  naturally  so.  Their  forte  was  guerrilla  war- 
fare, and  here  they  exhibited  that  astonishing  mobility,  entUirance, 
and  courage  which- so  long  ballled  the  British  in  their  conllicts  with 
DeW'et.  Mad  the  conditions  of  communication,  transportation,  and 
of  the  arts  in  general  been  of  the  eighteenth  century  type,  and  had 
Great  Britain  been  as  involved  in  foreign  complications  as  she  was 

^  The  followinp;  table  will  give  sonic  idea  of  the  cost  of  tlie  South  African 
\\";ir  a-^  compared  with  other  British  wars;  will  indicate  also,  to  some  degree,  the 
nictliods  of  financing  the  several  contests: 


AvcraRf 

Name   of    War                   Duration 

Total  Cost 

Taxation 

Borrowing 

Cost   [icr 

^■ear 

I.   War     in     Ireland     anil     with 

I'rai.LC    (108S-1697) 10 

\-cars. 

£32,644,000 

£  16,090,000 

or    49',r 

£16,553,000 

or    5i"« 

£3,627,000 

2.   War    of    Sjianish    Succession! 

'  .-roj  1713)    I J 

years. 

50,685.000 

21,280,000 
or   42',; 

29,405,000 
or   58',, 

4,22.1,000 

T.   War  witli  Spain   (1718-1720     4 

years. 

4,547,000 

3,545,000 

or    78',; 

1 ,002,000 
or   jj'o 

1,139,000 

4.    War  \vit!i   Spain  and   I"rancc| 

■ 

(1730-174^)    j(^ 

■4-ears. 

43/'55-o..o 

ij.93'.ooo 

29,724,000 

4.365,000 

1 

or   68',;. 

:.    Hitto     (Scvin     Vc::!,-,"    War)' 

'  '7:''  •■7<'i)   8 

1 

years. 

82,624,000 

22,605,000 
iir  27'v 

60,0  1  8,000 
or  73',;. 

10,328,00a 

0.    W.if     v,it!i     Aiticriian     Coln- 

i.n;-    (  1776-17^51 ,f, 

years. 

9r,.=;')o,ooo 

3.030.000 
or   y/r 

04,560,000 
•:r   97' ii 

9,760.000 

7.   War      -.vi;!;      I-'iaiio-      ('170!-' 

^-■•l)    23 

years. 

831,446,000 

391,148,000 
or   47',r 

440,298,000 
or   53'r 

36, 150,000 

!■■.    War     -Ai'h     R':.-ia     (  i^M-.^-- 

i  ^',-  5  ;'. ,)    2 

years. 

69,278,000 

29,562,000 
or   4.?',r 

39,715.000 
or   57'.;, 

34.639.000 

<).    .S-'iC/i     .I'r:   ,:>i     M'jr     f  iRt,,,- 

ny..:)    4 

years. 

2  12,6<)Q,0OO 

62,436,000 
or  29',;, 

I  50, 1  73,000 

53,152,000 

or    7\'/n 

(From    I".    R.    ]-airchi!d.    "  TIu-    iMiiancing  f,f  the   South    African    War,"    in 
.liinals  nf  the  .  Unrriani  .Icadony  of  /'uluical  and  Social  Science,  vol.  xx.,  No.  3. 

.\'o\c;iili(-r.   I'l'jj.  p.-i-c  K.i  ) 


AFRICA     SINCE     1895  28S 

1895-1910 

in  1780,  a  closer  likeness  to  the  American  Revolution  might  have 
been  presented. 

However,  this  was  not  to  be,  for,  with  the  aid  proffered  bv 
her  colonies,  England  was  enabled  finally  to  effect  a  conquest.  The 
republics  became  respectively  the  Orange  River  Colony  (May  24, 
1900)  and  the  Transvaal  Colony  (September  i,  1900),  and  were 
placed  under  a  British  governor.  The  British  acted  with  extreme 
leniency  and  generosity  in  victory;  $40,000,000  was  voted  by 
Parliament  for  the  repatriation  and  aid  of  the  Boers ;  by  November, 
1902,  50,000  out  of  70,000  burghers  had  been  restored.  The 
Transvaal  Boers  were  then  lent  money  without  interest  for  three 
years,  subsequently  to  bear  interest  at  three  per  cent.,  to  aid  them 
in  regaining  their  former  station  in  life.  The  British  Colonial 
Minister  himself  visited  South  Africa  ostensibly  to  inspect  and 
ameliorate  the  conditions  of  the  erstwhile  enemy.  An  equal  promi- 
nence was  accorded  to  the  Dutch  language,  and  the  Roman-Dutch 
law  was  allowed  to  remain  in  force.  A  large  sum  even  was  spent  in 
buying  up  and  restoring  the  farmers'  family  Bibles,  characteristic 
souvenirs  that  had  attracted  the  campaigners. 

Martial  law  was  discontinued  in  the  Transvaal  in  1902,  and 
both  the  colonies  were  granted  representative  institutions  with  the 
prospect  of  self-government  on  the  model  of  other  British  colonies 
of  settlement  as  soon  as  circumstances  would  permit;  and  that 
the  latter  clause  is  no  idle  or  cynical  proviso  the  history  of  Britisli 
colonization  in  the  nineteenth  century  may  stand  witness.  Mean- 
while, the  prospects  of  the  development  of  the  whole  region  ac- 
cording to  the  modern  mode  are  higher  than  ever  before,  although 
it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  a  fusion  of  races  and  of  civilizaticni 
can  be  eft'ected.  The  disappearance  of  two  leading  figures  from  the 
South  African  stage,  the  representatives  respectively  of  the  most 
conservative  and  the  most  progressive  tendencies,  cannot  but  have 
an  effect  upon  the  possibilities  of  reconciliation.  There  were  many 
people  who  urged  the  Uitlanders  to  have  patience  until  President 
Kriiger  died,  on  the  ground  that  he  alone  stood  between  them  and 
their  rights,  and  his  retirement  and  death  ha\-e  doubtless  removed 
the  sturdiest  of  the  champions  of  the  old  regime,  while  the  still 
earlier  passing  of  Cecil  Rhodes  has  effaced  forever  from  South 
Africa  the  curse  as  well  as  the  blessing  of  his  portentous  presence. 
However  it  may  be  in  the  future,  the  fact  that  in  the  trying  years 
just  past  the  Dutch  element  of  the  Cape  remained  largely  neutral. 


'>84  AFRICA 

189S  1910 

if  \]ot  loyal,  q;ivcs  promise  of  tlic  s;ro\vth  of  mutual  compatibility 
Ix'twccii  the  races,  ami  is  a  witness  to  a  *:»'ro\vin<^  realization  on  the 
part  of  many  inveterate  recalcitrants  of  the  blessinj^s  which  attend 
(>n  British  rule,  nnd  more  than  make  up  for  its  faults.  But  the  con- 
trast in  civilization,  with  which  this  discussion  of  the  Anj^lo-Boer 
relations  lx\q:an,  must  be  borne  constantly  in  mind,  if  one  is  not  to 
be  discouraqeil  at  any  slowness,  halting;,  c)r  even  rctroo^ression  of 
what  is  called  progress,  as  time  i^oes  on.  It  is  too  early  to  draw 
conclusions  of  any  value  as  to  a  chanc^ed  material  status  of  the 
country,  disorganized  and  demoralized  as  it  has  been  during  and 
since  tlie  war.  But  it  cannot  be  otherwise  under  l>ritish  rule  but 
that  material  civilization  should  advance,  and  that  these  backward 
states  should  begin  to  play  a  part  in  the  world  commensurate  with 
their  capacities. 

Among  the  as  yet  theoretical  projects  in  the  now  consolidated 
British  South  Africa  is  that  which  has  for  its  aim  the  federation  of 
this  whole  section  of  tlie  empire.  The  Australian  movement  has 
been  contagious,  and  \ery  likelv,  in  so  far  as  the  new  projects  are 
the  result  of  such  contagion,  they  are  precipitate.  But  no  student 
seriously  doubts  that  this  series  of  colonies,  in  so  far  as  they  consti- 
tute true  colonies  of  settlement,  are  sometime  to  proceed  through 
the  stages  already  traversed  by  Canada,  the  Australasian  posses- 
sions, and  the  United  States,  and  at  length  emerge  as  new  states, 
directing  their  own  aiTairs  in  only  nominal  dependence  upon,  if  not 
in  real  indejiendence  of.  the  mother  country.  In  those  environing 
C'lndiiions  which  determine  the  form  of  societies.  South  Africa 
resembles  the  Australian  settlements  rather  tlian  the  American, 
iia\ing  a  somewhat  less  op])ortunity  than  the  former  even  for  se- 
curing a  thorougiily  in(lcj)endcnt  and  scIf-sntTicing  station.  It  is 
a  'juestion  above  all  of  the  natural  or  acf|uircd  cajjacity  for  actual 
c  )i>»nizaiion,  tiiat  is.  for  agriculture,  and  the  limits  of  such  caj)acity 
are  likely  to  mark  llic  extent  of  independent  or  quasi-independent 
stale-5  ftir  a  long  future. 

Duriiii;  tin-  later  part  of  1908,  and  the  early  part  of  TQOO,  British 
and  I)ut;-!i  (Uli.-r^atcs  from  the  .*^onth  African  colonics  met  at  Dur- 
ban, Xatal.  and  draftcfj  a  constitution  miiting  all  the  states.  In 
December.  J(/x),  all  j)arties  were  j)lcased  with  the  appointment  of 
H'Tbert  Cllad^tonc  a*^  governor-general  of  Sonth  Africa,  and  his  ar- 
ri\:d  ;!iere  in  llie  carK-  i)art  of  i<MO.  was  a  lime  of  rejoicing  for  the 
j'C   pie  ovv  \vIiose  de-titdes  he  is  to  preside. 


AFRICA     SINCE     189  5  284a 

1895-1910 

Beside  the  prominent  roles  played  by  Egypt  and  South  Africa 
in  the  latter-day  history  of  British  African  possessions  or  spheres 
of  influence,  the  relatively  uneventful  history  of  the  rest  falls  into 
insignificance.  The  latter  are  tropical  colonies  and  have  made  their 
recent  history,  as  has  been  shown,  in  an  orthodox  manner.  In  all 
these  colonies  the  Europeans  constitute  only  a  vanishing  and 
ephemeral  element  in  the  population.  The  climate  is  deadly,  espe- 
cially on  the  west  coast;  it  is  said  that  between  the  British  pos- 
sessions on  this  coast  and  England,  there  have  been  usually  two 
governors  cii  route — the  new  go\'ernor  on  the  way  to  his  post  pass- 
ing the  dead  body  of  his  predecessor  as  it  was  being  borne  home 
for  burial  in  native  soil.  It  is  likewise  true  that  the  expenditure  for 
these  colonies  considerabl}-  exceeds,  as  a  rule,  the  revenue  col- 
lected. This  appears  to  be  a  necessary  condition  in  a  tropical  col- 
ony where  compulsory  labor  of  all  kinds  is  forbidden.  The  national 
gain  in  such  cases  is  not  fiscal,  then,  l^iut  must  be  estimated  under 
public  wealth,  if  there  is  any  material  return  at  all.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  a  government  seems  willing  to  continue  to  ])alance  the  bud- 
get of  such  colonies  from  a  variety  of  subjectixe  reasons  of  national 
pride,  vanity,  or  asserted  humanitarianism.  The  usual  formula — 
no  stranger  to  Americans — is:  "We  are  there,  and  cannot  with- 
draw." Sinister  reasons  for  such  an  apparently  losing  course  arc 
sometimes  discovered  in  the  undue  influence  of  interested  persons 
or  groups;  but  the  reasons  just  mentioned  are  certainly  the  osten- 
sible and  doubtless  predominantly  the  real  motive  forces  in  the 
breasts  of  the  unimaginative  and  dogged  British  and  other  taxpay- 
ers— "the  forgotten  men" — who  foot  the  bills  in  the  final  ac- 
counting. 

These  latter  remarks  on  tropical  colonics  may  be  taken  1o 
apply  to  most  of  the  African  settlements  of  all  the  participating 
nations,  for  practically  all  f»f  Africa  is  of  tliis  type,  except  the 
southern  tip.  What  tliey  all  desire,  exchiding  other  tlian  individ- 
ual and  national  aims,  is  trade.  Tliey  want  the  characteristic  [)rod- 
ucts  of  Africa  in  so  far  <is  these  supi)Iement  existing  l)nt  insnlli- 
cient  temperate  zone  j)ro(!ue!s,  or  fill  a  \-oi(l  locaII>-  impossi1)le  >>i 
satisfacti<m.  What  tliese  articles  are  the  concIn<hng  e!iai)ter  un- 
dertakes to  show.  A  wonderful  advance  in  the  civilizing  of  South 
Africa  was  nia<le  bv  the  Imilding  of  the  r.ailroad  b^'tWH'cn  1..  )\ito 
Bay,  through  P.enguella  and  extending  in  an  almost  direct  line 
across  Africa  to  Katanga.    There  it  joins  the  Cape  to  Cair-i  rail- 


2S4b  A  F  R  1  C  A 

1899-1910 

roail.  The  hiiildinc:  of  this  r.iilroad  has  hrongrht  Pretoria  3,000 
miles  nearer  to  Europe,  and  consequently  that  much  closer  to  the 
centers  of  advanced  civilization.  The  openinj^-up  of  Africa  began 
in  trade,  and  any  efTectivc  progress  in  this  line  has  been  through 
trade  and  commercial  enterprise,  directly  or  indirectly,  ahjne.  If 
the  status  <>f  the  population  shall  be  thereby  raised,  it  is  primarily 
through  trade,  which,  with  an  insufficient  approach  to  justice,  has 
been  called  the  "handmaid  of  civilization." 

The  trip  of  Col.  Roosevelt  to  Africa  has  done  more  to  awaken 
interest  in  tiiat  continent  than  all  the  events  which  have  preceded 
it  f<ir  m.iuy  years.  lH)r  months  the  newspapers  were  full  of  the 
adventures  of  this  most  representative  of  Americans,  anil  his  safe  re- 
turn was  hailed  with  joy  by  millions.  The  start  of  his  expedition, 
whicli  went  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  rare  and  unusual  specimens  f)f  animal 
life,  left  New  York  City,  March  23,  1909,  and  arrived  in  Naples, 
April  5th.  Col.  Roosevelt  was  met  and  welcomed  by  the  king,  but 
made  only  a  brief  stay,  arriving  at  Port  Said,  April  9.  The  expe- 
dition went  from  Mombasa,  northwest  to  Uganda;  thence  I* 
Nairobi,  and  on  back  \o  Kiiarloinn.  where  Col.  Roosevelt  was  met  by 
Mr.>.  Roosevelt  and  their  dau,;4htcr.  Miss  Rthel  RdoscvcU.  His  asso- 
ciates on  the  ex])cdition  were  Dr.  and  Col.  Edgar  A.  Mearns, 
lulmund  Ilellcr,  a  trained  naturalist;  J.  Alden  Loring,  a  collector 
"f  small  animals  of  world-wide  reputation,  and  his  son.  Kermil 
Ror.scvclt.  who  was  the  official  photograj^her  of  the  expedition. 
He  was  joined  by  R.  J.  Cunninghame,  an  iMiglishman,  who  had 
acted  as  guide  for  a  number  of  famous  travelers. 

The  expcditiriii.  from  a  scientific  standpoint,  has  been  an  im- 
mense success.  The  .Smitlisonian  Institute  has  been  enriched  be- 
yi'iid  tlu-  wildc.-t  ex|)cctntions  of  the  illustrious  explorer.  His  en- 
tire journey  h't<  bccii  one  continual  triumph,  native  chiefs  as  well 
a<  ;1k-  liighc.-i  oiVici;ils  of  the  \arious  governments.  \'\'ing  with  each 
other  to  flo  Iiitn  honor.  From  Africa,  tlic  Roosevelt  party  sailed  to 
Ilaly.  wlure  the  l;;iig  and  dignitaries  awaited  to  show  Col.  Roc>.-e- 
\e!t   the  liojiors  iiiiluTto  onl\-  accorded  to  reiirnimr  rulers. 


ECONOMICAL  VALUE  OF  AFRICA 


Chapter  XIX 

THE  ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  AFRICA 

SUCH,  tlicn,  in  hn'cf.  is  the  story  of  the  "scramble  for 
Africa  "  and  its  rcsnlts.  It  will  enable  us  to  form  some 
idea  of  the  value  of  the  share  which  has  fallen  to  each  of  the 
powers  who  have  been  enjT^ag'ed  in  the  scramble  if  we  endeavor  to 
realize  what  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  g^eofj^raphy  of 
Africa,  so  far  as  these  bear  upon  its  economical  development. 

It  was  a  prevalent  belief  amoncf  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
.c:coi::^raphers.  and  even  down  to  the  time  of  the  Arab  occupation, 
that  the  torrid  zone  of  the  earth,  and  especially  of  Africa,  was 
uninhabitable  on  account  of  its  heat.  Thouj:^h  not  precisely  in  the 
.'-cnse  in  which  these  ancients  meant  it.  there  is  a  c^reat  deal  of  truth 
in  this.  I-'rom  the  European  point  of  view.  Central  Africa  is  be- 
lieved by  most  authorities  to  be  uninhabitable,  or  at  least  uncolon- 
izable,  on  account  of  its  heat. 

There  is  anotlier  impression  very  prevalent  at  the  present  day, 
for  which  African  tra\clcrs  reproach  us.  We  are  apt,  we  are  told, 
to  forqet  that  Africa  is  not  a  little  bit  of  a  country  like  Knti^land  or 
h'rance  or  Italy  or  even  India,  but  that  it  is  a  .sfreat  continent  em- 
iiracing-  some  11,500,000  square  miles — 5000  miles  lonj^  from  north 
to  soutli,  and  4500  miles  wide  at  its  broadest  part;  and  that,  as  a 
C'sitineiit  strcfchinc;-  over  some  70''  of  latitude  and  nearly  as  many 
(>\  iMUc^ntude,  it  must  have  many  varieties  of  feature,  of  climate,  of 
pr'  ducts,  fif  i)eop]e.  While  there  is  no  doubt  much  justification 
fur  tlic  re])ro;icli.  the  popular  conception  is.  after  all,  not  so  very  far 
wn.ii^-.  Africa  is  the  most  um'form.  the  most  monotonous,  of  all 
tlie  continents;  amid  all  its  variety  there  is  a  certain  sameness,  a 
certain  family  lil<cness  from  nr)rth  to  south  and  east  to  west. 

This  comparative  uniformity  of  the  continent  of  .Africa,  and 
tlie  fact  I  if  itv  liaxiiitr  been  so  repellent  to  tlie  intervention  of  white 
races  reared  in  t(!nj)erate  latitudes,  can  to  a  larij^e  extent  be  ac- 
('.  iir.tcd  f.  ii"  by  coin])arins:^  the  situation  of  Africa  with  that  of  the 
other  contii^cnts.      It  lies  almost  evenly  balanced  on  each  side  of  the 

i?H6 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         287 

equator,  between  about  40°  north  and  40°  south  latitude.  The 
equinoctial  hue  which  passes  through  its  center  does  not  touch  the 
Euro-Asiatic  continent.  The  Tropic  of  Cancer,  which  skirts  the 
south  of  China  and  passes  through  the  center  of  India  and  Arabia, 
leaving  the  bulk  of  the  Euro-Asiatic  continent  to  the  north,  runs 
across  the  north  of  Africa,  leaving  only  about  3,000,000  square 
miles  between  it  and  the  ^Mediterranean ;  while  less  than  1,000,000 
square  miles  lie  to  the  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  at  the 
other  end  of  the  continent.  Again,  the  whole  of  North  America  is 
outside  of  the  tropics.  Of  the  southern  half  of  that  continent, 
much  of  the  tropical  area  is  occupied  by  the  ocean  with  its  moder- 
ating influences ;  and,  while  the  larger  part  of  South  America  is 
within  the  tropics,  still  a  very  considerable  portion  is  situated  to 
the  south  of  Capricorn,  and  down  almost  to  the  verge  of  Antarctic 
influences.  While  the  climate  of  the  southern  shores  of  Europe  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa,  and 
while  the  southern  peninsulas  of  Asia  are  purely  tropical,  everv 
variety  of  climate  is  found  between  that  and  the  ice-bound  shores  of 
Siberia.  In  the  other  hemisphere,  while  the  feet  of  the  Nortli 
American  continent  are  laved  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf 
Stream,  its  head  is  almost  within  hail  of  tlie  North  Pole.  Of 
Australia  even,  the  larger  half  is  outside  tropical  influences,  and  its 
non-tropical  shores  face  th.e  broad  ocean  and  not  landlocked  seas,  as 
do  the  north  and  northeast  coasts  of  Africa.  Africa,  then,  is  th,c 
tropical  continent  par  excellence.  Of  its  total  area  some  two-thirds, 
almost  8,000,000  square  miles,  lie  between  the  tropics,  and  have 
the  sun  vertical  twice  a  year,  while  the  rest  of  the  continent  is  more 
or  less  sub-tropical;  so  that,  so  far  as  climate  goes,  the  popular  con- 
ception is  not  far  wrong.  Eatu  of  America  only  about  one-third 
of  the  land  is  within  the  tropics. 

Here,  tlien,  we  have  a  barrier  to  Euro])ean  intercourse  and 
settlement  which  does  not  exist  to  anythmg  like  the  same  extent  on 
any  other  continent.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  reader 
how  this  question  of  latitude  acts  as  a  barrier  to  the  European 
occupation  of  the  bulk  of  Africa.  Perhaps  it  is  not  wise  to  be  t' m  > 
dogmatic  on  the  subject,  for  the  data  we  possess  arc  scanty  in  the 
extreme.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  among  those  who  are  entitled 
to  speak  with  authority  on  the  subject  it  is  held  that  without  an 
enoruKJUS  advance  in  the  arts,  colonization,  in  the  |)roper  sense  "i 
the  term,  is  iinpo.-.-^ihlc  in  a  trMpicrd  muntry,  unless  the  Euroj)can 


^^88  AFRICA 

can  cliangfc  liis  constitution :  unless  in  the  course  of  ages  a  variety  is 
ileveloped  differing  materially  from  the  races  that  now  occupy  at 
least  Northern  and  Central  Europe — and  such  a  variety  would 
practically  cease  to  be  I'^uropean. 

Another  serious  setback  to  Africa  is  its  regularity  of  contour. 
Though  Africa  is  more  than  three  times  the  size  of  Europe,  and 
although  it  is  practically  an  island  while  Europe  has  an  extensive 
land  frontier,  the  coast-line  of  Africa  measures  only  about  15,000 
miles  in  length,  while  that  of  Europe  is  iq.ooo  miles.  A  glance 
at  a  map  of  the  world  will  show  how  this  marked  difference  arises. 
There  is  not  a  single  indentation  on  the  coast  of  Africa  worthy  of 
the  name;  the  coast-line  all  round  looks  like  a  barrier  to  keep  back 
the  beneficent  advances  of  the  ocean.  Compare  the  north  coast  of 
Africa  with  the  opposite  coast  of  Europe,  with  its  long  Adriatic 
and  its  Black  Sea.  with  its  entrances  and  offshoots.  There  is  noth- 
ing in  the  whole  round  of  the  African  coast  to  compare  on  the  one 
hand  with  the  great  sea-arms  and  magnificent  natural  harbors  that 
mark  the  west  coast  of  Europe,  including  the  British  Isles,  nor  with 
the  richly  broken  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  on  the  other. 
There  is  only  one  estuary  of  real  magnitude  on  the  whole  continent, 
that  of  the  Congo;  hence  partly  the  great  hoj>es  entertained  of  the 
future  of  that  river.  Such  second-rate  harbors  as  those  of  Delagoa 
Bay  and  Mombasa  are  reckoned  valuable  possessions  in  Africa,  for 
wliich  nations  struggle.  This  monotonous  outline  of  the  African 
coast  acts  disadvantageously  in  two  ways  from  the  point  of  view 
of  European  enterprise.  In  the  first  place,  the  lack  of  deep  oceanic 
indentations  deprives  the  great  bulk  of  the  continent  of  the  benef- 
icent influences  which  contiguity  to  the  sea  brings  with  it;  and,  in 
the  second  place,  it  deprives  the  navigator  and  trader  of  ready 
h.ighways  to  the  interior.  Thus  the  mere  character  of  the  contour 
"f  the  coast  has  contributed  to  retard  the  development  of  the  con- 
tinent. At  the  same  time,  let  us  recall  the  fact  that  the  spread  of 
r.iih-oads  over  the  continent  would  tend  greatly  to  counteract  the 
C' .iiimcrcial  disadvantages  arising  from  the  lack  of  deep  arms  of 
the  sea,  navigable  rivers,  and  natural  harbors.  Railroads  are  the 
grrat  Icvclers,  shattering  old  geographical  traditions,  and  tending  to 
plarc  all  continents  on  a  more  equal  footing,  so  far  as  communica- 
ti   !is  are  concerned. 

Passing  from  the  contour  of  the  coast-line  to  the  configuration 
■'  •!  -iirface  of  the  continent,  we  find  Iiere  agrn'n  certain  charac- 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         289 

teristics  which  distinguish  Africa  from  all  the  other  continents. 
except  perhaps  Australia,  which  might  have  been  as  far  behind 
in  civilization  as  Africa  had  its  latitude  been  different.  The  sur- 
face of  Africa  is  nearly  as  monotonous  as  its  outline.  There  is 
only  one  mountain  range  worthy  of  the  name,  that  of  the  Atlas, 
which  extends  along  the  northern  rim  of  the  continent  from  Tunis 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco,  and  rises  at  its  loftiest  point, 
Miltsin,  to  13,000  feet.  Eastward  we  find  a  line  of  detached 
heights,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  with  one  or  two  points 
over  6000  feet,  and  leading  us  on  to  the  great  mountain  mass  of 
Abyssinia,  rising  in  terrace  after  terrace  to  a  culminating  height  of 
15,000  feet,  with  a  cap  of  perpetual  snow.  Proceeding  southward 
over  a  lofty  plateau,  we  come  upon  another  smaller  mass  of  ele- 
vated land  on  the  northeast  and  east  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  is 
marked  by  such  magnificent  heights  as  Elgon,  14,000;  Kenia, 
18,000;  and  Kilimanjaro,  20,000 — all  of  them  old  volcanoes,  and 
one  of  them,  Dunye-M'buro,  not  yet  extinct.  Scattered  over  the 
region  between  this  and  Lakes  Nyasa  and  Bangweolo  we  find  a 
few  points  rising  to  over  5000  feet,  but  there  is  no  other  mountain 
range  till  we  meet  the  Drackensberg  in  Southeast  Africa,  rising  In 
places  to  10,000  feet,  and  extending  under  varying  names  and  at  a 
lower  level  southwest  and  west  into  Cape  Colony.  Between  lliat 
and  the  Cameroons  only  one  or  two  spots  reach  a  height  of  over 
6000  feet.  In  the  small  mass  of  Cameroons  we  rise  to  13,700  feet, 
and  find  ourselves  in  an  old  volcanic  region  continued  into  Fer- 
nando Po  and  neighboring  islands.  Between  the  Cameroons  and 
Lake  Chad,  Mount  Atlantika  shoots  up  beyond  the  general  level  of 
the  plateau;  while  Ruwenzori  (20,000  feet)  and  its  neighboring- 
summits,  to  the  south  of  Albert  Nyanza.  may  be  taken  as  belonging 
to  the  great  volcanic  series  around  Victoria  Nyanza  and  nortli  to 
Abyssinia.  Even  the  Sahara  is  not  so  deadly  level  as  is  j)o])nfarly 
believed;  there  is  a  line  of  heights  running  northwest  from  Darfm-, 
and  culminating  in  Tibesti  in  a  summit  which  deserves  to  be  called 
a  mountain,  for  it  rises  to  over  7000  feet. 

But  when  all  is  put  together  the  really  mountainous  regions 
of  Africa  amount  to  little  compared  with  the  great  size  of  tlic 
continent.  We  have  nothing  in  Africa  that  can  compare  in  com- 
parative mass  and  extent  with  the  Alps,  the  I'yrenees,  the  .Apen- 
nines, the  Carpathians,  the  Scandinavian  ranges,  in  ban-ope,  not 
to  mention  the  llimalavas  and  the  stupendons   ranges  of  Central 


290  A  F  R  I  C  A 

Asia,  and  tlie  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains  that  nni  the  whole 
loni^th  <>i  the  American  continent.  This  hick  of  g^rcat  mountain 
ranges  upon  the  African  continent  must  be  regarded  as  another 
serious  iha whack  to  its  economical  development,  since  it  markedly 
afTcvts  its  rainfall  and  the  distribution  of  its  water  supply.  Xearly 
all  the  mountain  regions  we  have  referred  to  Ix'ar  evidence  of 
gigantic  volcanic  activity  at  a  past  period  in  the  history  of  the 
ciMUineiit.  The  geological  history  of  the  continent  is,  no  doubt, 
one  (^f  great  interest.  That  at  a  recent  period  Africa  was  con- 
nected with  Eurt^pe  no  one  doulUs,  but  the  idea  that  the  present 
surface  of  the  Sahara  is  an  old  sea-bed  has  been  abandoned  in  the 
face  of  recently  accumulated  evidence.  Over  much  of  the  conti- 
nent the  old  Plutonic  rocks  prevail  immensely  over  the  recent  erup- 
tive rocks,  just  as  the  older  sedimentary  do  over  the  recent  tertiary 
or  quaternary.  Both  orders  appear  to  be  generally  intermingled 
and  largely  ass(xiated  with  semi-crystalline  and  metamorphic 
fomis.  In  a  general  way  the  composition  of  the  soil  of  Africa  is 
favorable  enough  to  the  varied  requirements  of  humanity;  its  great 
want  is  water. 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the  paucity  of  great 
mountain  ranges  in  Africa  as  compared  w^th  Europe  and  Asia,  the 
general  mean  elevation  of  the  former  is  greater  than  in  cither  of 
the  latter.  In  the  case  of  Africa  it  is  from  1900  to  2000  feet,  ^vhile 
that  of  luiropc  is  only  1000  feet  and  Asia  1650  feet.  This  reveals 
to  us  the  great  characteristic  feature  of  the  surface  of  Africa — a 
high  plateau,  descending  almost  everywhere  in  terraces  to  the  coast. 
All  round  the  coast  is  a  strip  \arying  in  breadth,  but  generally  coni- 
j)aratively  narrow,  of  not  more  than  500  feet  in  height.  lUit  tlic 
great  bulk  of  the  continent  is  a  plateau  of  from  500  to  2000  feel, 
nuich  nearer  to  the  latter  than  the  former.  Indeed,  the  mass  of  the 
continent  south  of  the  equator,  exclusive  of  a  considerable  section 
of  the  ("ongo  basin,  is  from  2(X^o  to  5000  feet,  with  a  broad  belt 
including  the  great  lakes  iju>hiiig  northward  far  be^'ond  tlie  equator 
int'>  the  I'pper  Xile  basin  and  Abyssinia.  Scattered  (Aer  this, 
we  ha\e  seen,  are  jjatches  which  ri>e  U)  o\cr  r>ooo  feet.  The  cen- 
tral j)oriion  of  this,  trending  northeast  from  Daniaraland  to 
Ahys-inia,  and  from  500  to  1000  miles  wide,  may  be  said  to  aver- 
age 5fXX3  feet  in  height.  The  northern  half  of  the  continent,  while 
retaining  its  ])latean  character,  has  a  considerably  lower  general 
altitude,  a  .crai-in''-  1  ::oo  feet,  thouuli  much  of  it  rises  to  2000  feet. 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         291 

In  Africa,  in  short,  the  rehef  of  the  land,  instead  of  being  concen- 
trated in  one  or  two  enormous  mountain  ranges,  has  been  spread 
over  the  continent  with  wonderful  equality. 

The  practical  importance  of  the  plateau  character  of  the  sur- 
face of  Africa  will  be  apparent  when  the  influence  of  altitude  in 
'modifying  temperature  is  kept  in  view.  The  mean  annual  isotherm 
of  70°  is  almost  coincident  with  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  and  just 
comes  inside  the  south  coast.  The  mean  annual  isotherm  of  80^ 
is  in  the  north  almost  coincident  with  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  on 
the  south  enters  at  the  Guinea  Coast,  but  sweeps  so  abruptly  south 
as  to  include  the  bulk  of  Africa  south  of  the  equator.  These  are 
enormous  average  temperatures  to  embrace  a  continent;  no  other 
land-mass  has  anything  like  them.  Over  a  large  area  of  the  con- 
tinent the  usual  day  temperatures  are  of  course  much  higher,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  rapid  nocturnal  radiation.  Central  Africa  would 
really,  as  the  ancients  believed,  become  uninhabitable  on  account  of 
the  heat. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  as  a  general  rule  tempera- 
ture decreases  by  1°  for  every  300  feet  of  altitude,  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  the  plateau  character  of  Africa,  so  far  as  the  European 
is  concerned,  must  be  at  once  evident.  WHien  such  altitudes  are 
available  as  we  find  in  Africa  around  the  great  lakes — Victoria,  tlie 
two  Alberts,  Tanganyika,  Nyasa,  and  the  district  between  the  last 
tv/o,  as  also  in  the  Cameroons  and  the  Abyssinian  highlands — with 
ordinary  care  and  a  fair  constitution  to  start  with,  a  lengthened 
residence  and  reasonable  activity  become  possil)le,  and,  if  on  tlie 
verge  of  the  tropics,  even  colonization  may  be  practicable ;  tliough 
the  last  statement  must  be  taken  with  caution.  For,  be  it  remem- 
bered, it  is  not  the  mere  heat  of  the  tropics  that  tells  on  the  luu'o- 
pean  constitution;  there  is  the  malaria  engendered  in  the  low-lying 
regions,  and  even  in  the  uplands  in  some  places.  ]\Iore  trying  even 
than  this,  both  to  man  and  beast,  is  the  excessive  variation  of  tcMu- 
perature  between  day  and  night.  The  difference  between  summer 
and  winter  temperature  in  some  ])arts  of  Africa  is  very  great;  in 
the  Central  Sahara  and  in  I'echuanaland  it  is  as  much  as  36  ',  and 
in  Southwest  Africa  even  60'^.  Such  a  difference  can  be  j^rovided 
for.  But  when  there  is  a  sudden  lowering  of  the  temiicratnre  at 
sundown  in  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  moisture-laden  atmos])]icre  it 
is  apt  to  tell  severely  on  the  European  constitution.  This  is  one 
point  that  has  yet  to  be  tested  in  Alaslionaland,  which,  though  siih- 


i>92  AFRICA 

tropical,  is  in  some  respects  a  country  that  promises  well  for 
Fiiropcan  occupation. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantapfes  of  the 
plateau  character  of  tropical  Africa,  so  far  as  concerns  the  influence 
oi  the  climate  on  the  European  constitution.  It  entails,  however, 
still  another  obstacle  to  free  commercial  development.  The  pla- 
teau, which  prevails  almost  everywhere,  slopes  down  in  terraces 
more  or  less  rapidly  to  the  coast,  and  down  these  terraces  the 
rivers  from  the  interior  must  make  their  way,  w-ith  the  result  that 
we  find  the  ccnirses  of  the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Congo,  the  Zambezi, 
mc^re  or  less  interrupted  by  cataracts.  These  are  a  serious  obstacle 
to  navigation.  Fortunately  on  the  Niger  the  break  occurs  far  up 
the  river,  leaving  a  long,  clear  waterway,  but  on  the  Congo  we 
meet  with  some  200  miles  of  unnavigable  cataracts,  beginning  at 
:il)()Ut  150  miles  from  the  sea,  and  so  cutting  off  from  direct  access 
the  1000  miles  of  splendid  waterway  above,  which  leads  into  the 
heart  of  Africa.  Had  it  not  been  for  this  we  cannot  doubt  that 
the  Congo  would  have  been  traced  from  below  long  before  Stan- 
ley's brilliant  achievement  from  above.  At  the  same  time,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  these  geographical  disadvantages  can  be 
to  a  large  degree  nullified  by  the  construction  of  railroads.  No 
doubt  both  in  Europe  and  America  river-navigation  is  of  impor- 
tance, but  it  is  insignificant  compared  with  the  importance  of  rail- 
road communication.  American  rivers  are  not  infrequently  flanked 
by  railroads  built  directly  on  their  banks.  In  fact,  the  judicious 
introduction  of  railroads  would  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the 
African  waterways. 

Prevailing  winds  have  much  to  do  with  temperature,  and  still 
iivivc  perhaps  with  rainfall;  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  here  we 
touch  upfin  owe  of  the  weakest  of  Africa's  many  weak  points.  On 
the  east  coast  tlie  prevailing  winds  are  toward  the  continent,  bring- 
ing witli  tlicm  a  fair  sui)ply  of  moisture:  all  around  the  Gulf  of 
r,uinca  the  ocean  sends  an  ample  tribute  of  moisture,  while  farther 
S'lUth  the  c(>]<\  l»enguela  current  tends  to  diminish  the  supply.  The 
nortlieast  trades  just  skirt  the  Sahara  coast,  and  do  it  little  good. 
wliile  tlic  winds  tliat  cross  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea  have 
^ilready  j)arted  with  most  of  their  moisture  to  the  Euro-Asiatic 
la!id-ni:i>s,  and  wliat  little  remains  is  levied  by  the  coast-lands. 
W  hat.  then,  arc  the  results  of  these  influences  so  far  as  the  supply 
of  moisture,  tlie  rainfall  (jf  the  African  continent,  is  concerned? 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         293 

It  should  be  remembered  that  we  have  precise  and  continued  ob- 
servations for  very  few  places  in  Africa.  From  such  meager  data 
as  we  have  we  find  that  the  region  of  greatest  rainfall  is  round  the 
Niger  mouths  and  south  along  the  coast  to  the  Ogove,  with  one  or 
two  patches  on  the  coast  to  the  south  of  the  Gambia.  There  we 
may  have  over  lOO  inches  annually.  On  the  Lower  Niger  region, 
up  by  the  Benue,  and  on  a  sweep  from  the  Upper  Benue  down  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  Congo  mouth,  and  probably  including  some  of 
the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Congo,  the  rainfall  is  estimated  to 
average  from  50  to  100  inches  annually.  The  same  amount  is 
found  along  a  broad  strip  of  the  Upper  Guinea  coast,  and  over  an 
extensive  area  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  on  the  Middle  and 
Upper  Congo  and  its  great  feeders,  and  around  the  gxeat  lakes. 
There  is  also  a  patch  on  the  Tana  River  region,  to  the  northeast 
of  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  a  strip  on  the  east  coast  from  Mozambique 
to  the  River  Jub.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  center  of  the  continent 
from  the  Niger  and  Benue  on  the  north  to  the  Zambezi  on  the 
south  has  about  50  inches,  reaching  on  the  Upper  Congo  and  its 
feeders  100  inches.  Fifty-inch  patches  are  found  on  the  coast  of 
Algeria  and  Tunis,  over  a  considerable  area  of  ^Morocco,  and  into 
Abyssinia.  Over  much  of  the  western  JMediterranean  border,  on 
the  southern  face  of  the  Atlas,  we  have  at  least  from  10  to  25 
inches.  A  similar  supply  prevails  over  a  belt  of  varying  breadth 
reaching  east  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  along  the  Central 
Sudan  States  and  on  the  Abyssinian  tributaries  of  the  Nile.  A 
still  wider  belt  to  the  north  of  this  receives  from  5  to  10  inclics,  but 
it  merges  into  the  Sahara,  where  the  annual  average  is  less  than 
5  inches — too  little  to  be  of  any  avail  for  cultivation.  Tn  ilic 
south  of  the  Zambezi  tlie  raiufall  is  about  50  inclics  on  tlie  cast 
coast  and  on  to  the  ed^^Q  of  the  Mashonaland  plateau.  gra(hi;i!ly 
diminishing  to  25  inches,  and  still  further  the  farther  westward. 
The  western  half  of  this  rcginn  north  of  the  Orange  River 
has  the  minimum  rainfall.  On  the  coast  of  Cape  Colony  they  have 
50  inches  and  over,  but  this  rapidly  diminishes  as  wc  leave  the  criast. 
The  northeast  horn  of  Africa,  including  Somaliland.  has  from  to 
to  25  inches,  with  the  exception  of  an  area  from  Lake  Ixudolf  lo 
beyond  the  Jub,  where  the  rainfall  is  from  5  to  to  inches.  Thus, 
then,  except  in  the  center  of  the  continent,  in  tropical  Africa  the 
rainfall  is  almost  excrywhcre  inadc(|uate  for  iiiduUiial  1  .pci-atioir^ : 
>')  that  where  Europeans  might  settle,  ^o  far  a-  temperature  l;  "■-, 


29i  AFRICA 

the  water  supply  is  defective.  Even  in  the  central  Iwlt,  especially 
in  East  Africa,  there  are  considerable  areas  of  desert  met  with 
where  the  water  supply  is  almost  nil. 

Closely  related  to  tlic  supply  of  water  from  above  is  that  on 
the  surface  oi  the  continent.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  Central  Africa  is  its  group  of  great  lakes — Victoria  Xy- 
anza.  Albert  and  Albert  Edward  Xyanzas,  Tanganyika,  Mweru, 
Bankwe(^l(\  Xyasa — just  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  region  where 
tlie  rainfall  may  l>e  from  50  to  100  inches.  On  the  northern  edge 
of  the  25  to  50-inch  area  we  find  Lake  Ch.-wl.  wliich  is  really  not 
much  more  than  an  enormous  swamp  varying  very  greatly  in  area 
according  to  t!ie  season.  South  from  the  southern  ali^e  we  find  a 
corresponding  swampy  lake.  Xgami,  which  may  be  all  that  remains 
of  a  much  greater  lake,  into  which,  at  no  very  remote  period,  the 
Zambezi  may  have  discharged  its  waters.  The  only  other  lakes 
of  any  consequence  in  Africa  are  Lake  Dcmbea,  among  the 
.Abyssinian  Mountains,  and  Lake  Rudolf,  to  the  northeast  of 
\'ictoria  X'yanza.  situated  in  a  comparatively  dry  region,  and 
f.  >rming  the  receptacle  of  an  inland  drainage  basin.  But  the  great 
mass  of  lacustrine  waters  is  concentrated  in  tlie  center  of  the 
continent. 

It  is  not  surprising,  then,  to  find  that  the  rivers  of  Africa,  with 
one  exception,  draw  their  supplies  from  the  center  of  the  continent. 
Tlie  Xi!e  drains  the  waters  of  tlie  tl-.rce  Xyanza-'.  and  one  of  it-^ 
chief  eastern  feeders  comes  from  a  lake  of  Abyssinia.  The 
Congo  may  be  said' to  rise  in  Lake  luingweolo,  w!:ile  the  Tangan- 
yika sends  its  contribution  to  tlie  same  river.  Many  tributaries 
C'-me  from  the  sontli,  drawing  tlicir  waters  from  tliat  great  sponge, 
as  Livingstone  called  it,  an  enormous  marsliy  region  that  may  be 
said  to  form  th.e  water-parting  l)Ctwcen  the  Congo  and  Zambezi. 
V.  hence  tlie  latter  rises,  a^^  well  as  tl-.c  Ovinia,  wliicli  makes  its  way 
t  )  the  west  coast.  While  the  Xigcr  itself  is  fed  from  the  rainy 
rcc^^'on  r>i  Western  Africa,  its  great  trihutar\-.  the  ricnue.  comes 
fr.  m  t!:e  central  7.  .ne.  Th.ese  rire  the  i- 'V.r  great  river-sy-tem-^  of 
Africa  and  tl;e  .\ile  :-  the  or,Iy  one  which,  i;)  an\'  part  of  its  course. 
rc-;che<  i)cyoivl  the  tr.  ];ics.  The  Scncg;.!  and  the  Gambia,  though 
tr(>])icri!.  are  iiH-qT.ihcant :  tlie  Lin-:p.  »pi  ■  is  a!=o  small,  and  is  of 
dor.ljtful  n-liiv  f-r  na\i;:ati  mi.  while  the  Oi-ar.;;e  is  not  much  l>ettcr 
than  a  ]:v.'j^v  :  'rrcnt.  Pry  ri\er-i)ed<  i''-  "  wndirs  "'  are  found  in 
niany  placc>  ■  ;-.t--Mt  the  tr.  pics,  even  i:i  I'le  Sahara,      hi  this  enor- 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         295 

mous  desert  we  find  wadies  of  very  great  lengtli,  and  along  these 
are  signs  that  at  one  time  they  may  have  been  permanently  flowing 
rivers.  Even  now,  wlien  the  rain  has  been  more  than  usually 
copious,  they  may  contain  water  for  a  few  days,  and  water  can 
always  be  obtained  by  digging.  On  the  other  side  of  the  continent, 
again,  in  the  Cape  region  and  the  countries  around  its  borders,  the 
dry  river-beds  may  suddenly  become  destructive  torrents.  But.  as 
a  general  rule,  outside  the  tropical  area  permanently  flowing  water 
is  rare. 

The  foregoing  is  an  attempt  to  exhibit,  with  necessary  brevity 
and  generality,  the  leading  data  which  may  be  said  to  go  to  consti- 
tute the  surface  geography  of  Africa.  All  that  appears  on  that 
surface,  or  that  may  be  gotten  out  of  it  by  human  exertion,  mav  be 
said  to  be  an  outcome  of  the  various  factors  with  which  we  have 
been  dealing.  We  have  first  the  position  of  the  continent  on  the 
earth's  surface,  i.  e.,  latitude;  then  we  have  the  outline  or  contour 
of  the  coast,  and  its  relations  to  the  surrounding  oceans ;  the  con- 
tours or  hypsometric  characteristics  of  the  surface ;  the  distribution 
of  the  sun's  heat,  the  prime  influence  of  all ;  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  winds,  and  the  distribution  and  amount  of  the  moisture 
which  they  bring;  the  supply  of  surface  water,  or  hydrography  of 
the  continent.  What,  then,  do  we  find  as  the  first  outcome  of 
these  various  influences? 

To  begin  with,  in  tlie  great  central  region,  the  region  of  fairly 
abundant  rainfall  and  of  generally  ample  surface  water  supjjjy,  we 
find,  on  the  whole,  spontaneous  tropical  exuberance  of  vegetation 
and  plentiful  animal  life.  Even  here,  especially  in  l^ast  Africa, 
there  are,  however,  great  patches  of  poor  scrub-land,  or  steppe 
country,  little  l)etter  than  desert.  But  the  main  feature  is  rich 
grass-land  covered  with  trees,  sometimes  in  clumps,  sometimes  con- 
densed into  forests  of  no  great  extent,  very  generally  of  an  open 
])ark-like  character.  In  the  region  rjf  most  abundant  rainfall, 
around  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  in  jjatchcs  along  the 
Benue,  on  the  E])]jer  Congi)  and  its  tributaries,  and  generally 
wherever  we  find  the  rainfall  most  abundant,  we  have  genuine 
tropical  forests,  tlK)Ugh  iifAhing,  it  would  seem,  to  com])are  in  con- 
tinuous extent  with  tlie  great  fore-t  region  of  Soutli  America. 
Here,  then,  in  the  great  cemral  belt,  from  lo''  north  to  20°  souti;. 
the  region  of  true  trcjpical  he.'it  and  troj)ical  rainfall,  we  havt- 
nature   spontaneously   exuberant.      Outside   thi>   region    there   are 


'>1)6  AFRICA 

feu  districts  of  which  the  same  can  be  said;  it  mainly  depends  on 
tiic  rainfall.  South  of  the  central  and  eastern  Zambezi,  except 
the  low-lying:  Manika  coiintr}'.  the  district  where  tliere  is  a  fairly 
abundant  extra-tropical  rainfall,  including'  Mashonaland,  Mata- 
beleland.  parts  of  the  Transvaal  and  Oranp^e  Free  State,  and  east 
and  south  Cape  Colony,  we  find  c;Tass-lands  with  trees.  thou,e;h 
not  very  evenly  distributed,  and  liable  to  l>e  affected  by  capricious 
rainfall.  Similar  patches  are  found  in  Abyssinia,  alone;  the  valley 
(if  the  Nile,  and  alonp:  the  slopes  of  the  Atlas  and  the  Western 
Mediterranean  coast-lands. 

North  of  the  central  belt  and  between  the  Mediterranean 
C(\'ist.  and  also  over  most  of  the  northeast  horn  of  Africa,  is  found 
an  area  either  absolutely  desert,  or  the  next  stage  to  it — poor 
steppe,  scrub,  or  other  land  of  a  like  nature.  This  area  covers 
something  like  4,000.000  square  miles — one-third  of  the  continent. 
Of  this  about  one-half  is  pure  desert,  the  veritable  sandy  Sahara. 
The  true  Sahara  is  not  one  compact  area.  On  its  south,  with  a 
var}-ing  breadth,  we  have  the  so-called  steppe  or  scrub-land,  much 
of  which  is  really  fairly  good  grass-land  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  with  vegetation  of  a  shrubby  or  scrubby  character.  This 
broadens  out  to  the  north  of  the  Senegal,  and  extends  in  a  wide 
strip  along  the  west  coast  region.  It  pushes  its  way  right  into  the 
center  of  the  Sahara,  and  broadens  out  into  the  Ahaggar  high- 
lands. Anotiier  wedge  runs  north  from  Darfur  into  the  Tibesti 
country,  wliile  the  same  characteristics  prevail  over  most  of  the 
northeast  horn  of  Africa.  On  the  other  side  of  Africa  we  find  a 
stri])  of  true  desert  along  the  west  coast  from  the  Coanza  to  the 
( )range  Kiver.  This  sj)reads  out  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi. 
Over  about  two-thirds  of  South  Africa,  and  extending  well  to  the 
sr)ut]i  of  the  Orrmge  River,  we  have  the  scrub  or  steppe  character- 
istics known  in  the  Caj)e  region  as  the  Karroo. 

Thus,  then,  in  Africa,  we  have  at  least  2.000.000  square  miles 
'f  true  desert,  and  i)robably  ab(:)nt  a  similar  area  of  land  at  a  stage 
a!)o\e  the  desert,  varying  from  the  poorest  scrub  to  land  that  may  at 
^'ime  time  of  the  year  yield  a  fair  amount  of  grass  with  only  the 
natural  moistm-e  that  may  fall  to  its  share.  This,  of  course,  is  a 
,Lreneral  >tatenient,  for  it  is  wholly  imi)ossible  to  draw  any  hard- 
and-fa-t  line  between  absolutely  good  and  absolutely  bad  land;  nor 
!^  there  any  matlu-matieal  line  between  tropical  and  non-troj)ical 
regidi-.      We  find  <;a'-es  of  verdure  in  the  most  desert  regions,  and 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         29T 

desert  areas  surrounded  by  exuberant  vegetation.  If  we  compare 
the  distribution  of  surface  with  the  distribution  of  rainfall,  we 
cannot  but  be  struck  with  the  very  close  relations  that  exist  between 
the  two  factors.  Indeed,  this  factor  of  rainfall  influences  other 
factors  in  a  remarkable  way,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  all  over  the 
world.  In  South  Australia  every  inch  of  rain  above  a  certain 
quantity  may,  it  has  been  calculated,  be  worth  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  dollars  to  the  wheat  farmer. 

Indirectly  also  rainfall  influences  the  distribution  of  animals ; 
for  graminivorous  animals  go  where  they  find  t;ie  most  abundant 
food,  and  the  carnivorous  follow  in  their  train.  The  distribution  of 
the  larger  carnivores  and  of  venomous  animals  is  of  no  little 
practical  importance,  for  they  constitute  a  certain  amount  of 
danger  to  the  opening  up  of  the  continent  by  Europeans ;  but  it  is 
an  element  which  may  for  practical  purposes  be  neglected.  Indeed, 
the  existence  of  the  larger  animals,  whatever  order  they  belong  to, 
may  actually  promote  the  opening  up  of  the  continent,  seeing  that 
they  attract  the  sportsman,  who  may  act  as  pioneer  for  the  trader 
and  the  missionary.  But  from  the  commercial  point  of  view  the 
most  important  of  African  animals  is  no  doubt  the  elephant,  which 
is,  in  a  general  way,  found  from  the  edge  of  the  northern  desert 
region  to  below  the  Zambezi.  From  the  latter  region  it  is  rapidly 
retiring  northward.  It  used  to  be  found  quite  near  the  south  coast, 
but  in  the  Cape  Colony  proper  it  is  now  only  found  in  a  preserve. 
Rarely  now  is  the  elephant  found  near  any  coast,  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that,  unless  its  destruction  is  placed  under  stringent 
regulation,  the  existence  of  this  animal  will  soon  be  confined  to  the 
most  inaccessible  regions.  As  might  be  expected,  the  elephant  is 
found  to  be  most  abundant  in  the  central  region  of  jilcntiful  rainfall 
and  exuberant  vegetation ;  and,  in  reckoning  up  the  commercial 
assets  of  Africa,  it  must  be  taken  into  account. 

Much  more  important  for  the  development  of  Africa  than  the 
distribution  of  animal  life  on  its  surface  is  the  extent  to  which 
minerals  are  found  beneath  it.  Until  the  geolo.^y  of  the  continent 
is  more  completely  worked  out,  only  the  vaguest  statements  can  he 
made  on  the  subject.  Gold  was  found  in  Africa  even  in  remote 
times,  and  the  gold  mines  oi  ?^Iashonaland  and  Manika.  so  ])r(.mi 
nent  in  our  day,  were  worked  long  before  the  Portngnese  tonched 
the  shores  of  the  continent,  and  the  massive  ruins  fonnd  scattered 
over  that  region  are  evidence  enough  of  the  fact.    That  gold  exists 


J>9S  AFRICA 

in  ^rcal  abumlancc  not  only  in  that  region  bnt  over  much  of  the 
area  st>nth  of  the  Zambezi,  in  the  west  as  in  the  cast,  there  can  be  little 
doubt.  North  of  the  Zambezi,  in  the  Lake  Nyasa  rei^ion,  it  is  also 
found.  The  (lold  Coast  deserves  its  name;  but  unfortunately  the 
climate  is  a  great  obstacle  to  the  working  of  the  mines.  Inland  from 
tlie  Ked  Sea.  on  the  cast  of  Xubia  and  down  by  llarrar,  it  is  also 
found,  and  was  probably  worked  there  in  the  old  Egyptian  times. 
Silver  is  also  found  there,  and  both  gold  and  silver  in  Abyssinia. 
Ciold  has  been  worked  in  Senegambia.  and  silver  in  Morocco, 
Algeria,  and  Tunis.  Tn  some  of  the  last-mentioned  places  the.se 
precious  metals  may  not  be  abundant,  still  it  may  pay  to  work  them. 
St\  far,  then,  the  mo.st  coveted  of  all  metals  seems  to  exist  in  the 
greatest  abundance  on  the  south  of  the  Zambezi. 

Still  farther  south,  in  Mashonaland.  Xatal,  the  Transvaal,  and 
the  Cape,  we  Iia\e  reason  to  believe  there  is  a  fair  supply  of  coal. 
I'.ut  so  far  .Africa  can  hardly  be  said  to  boast  of  its  coal  supply, 
while  iron,  and  tliat  of  a  very  tine  quality,  is  fairly  abundant  in 
several  regious.  jind  long  has  been  worked  by  the  natives.  In  the 
Transvaal,  on  the  west  of  Lake  Xyasa,  to  tlie  west  of  the  Upper 
Zambezi,  in  Tibesti,  in  Abyssinia  and  Darfur,  in  the  Victoria 
Xyanza  region,  and  along  the  shores  of  Tunis.  Algeria,  and  Mo- 
rocco, this  useful  metal  is  found  in  remarkable  quantities.  Co])per 
also  is  found  in  the  Trans\-aal,  and  in  great  abundance  on  the  south 
of  the  Orange  River,  in  ])ainai"aland,  and  in  Katanga,  west  of  Lake 
Langcwcolo.  It  is  believed  also  to  exist  in  f|uantity  in  the  Congo 
region,  in  Algeria,  Morocc(\  and  possibly  in  Darfur.  Xor  must 
we  overlook  the  diamonrls  of  Kimbcrley.  Bnt  as  yet  we  kiKAV  loo 
little  of  Africa  to  be  able  to  sav  witli  any  confidence  wliat  are  its 
mineral  riches.  And  when  they  are  found,  their  mercantile  value 
v.-ill  (lej)cnd  upon  tlicir  accessibility. 

Indeed  tliis  accessibility  is  the  important  factor  which  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  value  to  humanity  of  this 
jK'culiar  continent.  \\"e  lia\e  already  seen  that  there  are  no 
t'Cean  liigluvay-  into  the  heart  of  .\frica.  Its  coast-line  is 
rr.-arly  a>  nvmntdnouslv  regular  as  a  circle.  Xatural  har- 
1  ;■'  r-^  are  few  an^l  far  between.  Still,  that  is  a  diftlculty  which 
engineering  -cience  crm  oxercjine  if  the  interior  itself  were  easily 
acce<>ilile.  \',\n  we  liave  seen  that  the  waterways,  which  look  so 
niagnilicent  <<:\  tlie  map.  and  which  lead  into  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent, are  deceptive  in  their  a])pcarance.     We  lia\e  seen  that  the  four 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  AFRICA 


299 


great  rivers  of  Africa,  in  making  their  way  down  from  the  plateau 
to  the  coast,  are  all  more  or  less  broken  by  cataracts.  The  cataracts 
of  the  Nile  are  not  so  bad  that  they  may  not  be  overcome,  and  as 
a  w^aterway  it  is  fairly  useful,  and  might  be  more  so  if  the  countries 
to  which  it  gives  access  were  under  moderately  good  government. 


ItAZL.RQAJDS 


I-UGHW^rs 


AFRICA. 

>  7fai2i~oads. 


•Unnavigablc  /oortibnzof  rii/e>~s  . 


However,  the  railroad  that  runs  alung  its  side  for  many  miles  i>  a 
much  more  important  trade-route  than  the  river  itself.  I'ortunatcly 
the  Niger  presents  some  hundreds  of  miles  of  fairly  clear  vvaier- 
way,  though  its  moutlis  are  trouhlesome,  and  sIkiUdws  and  sami- 
banks  have  to  be  avoided,  lis  c^reat  tributary,  the  I'ennc.  is  navi- 
gable by  small  steamers  for  hundreds  of  miles,  at  Iea^t  in  tlic  wet 
season;  and,  as  it  goes  almost  direct  ca.^t,  it  leads  int.)  the  hr:;i-i 
of  the  continent.     I'hese  two  rivci-s  run  throuL-h  or.e  oi  the  relie^f 


300  A  ¥  RICA 

regions  of  tropical  Africa.  The  Congo,  we  have  seen,  after  some 
150  miles  of  sjilendid  waterway,  suited  for  vessels  of  considerable 
size,  is  barred  by  jog  miles  of  rapids,  above  which  there  is  a  clear 
1000  miles  of  navigable  river;  while  some  of  its  great  tributaries, 
north  and  south,  add  hundreds  of  miles  of  fair  routes.  The  railroad 
ntuv  being  ciMistructed  past  the  rapids  will,  if  ever  it  is  completed, 
render  this  one  of  tlie  finest  trade-routes  in  Central  Africa.  As 
for  the  Zambezi,  if  once  its  fickle  mouths  arc  passed,  steamers  of 
nitHlcrate  size  may  g(^  up,  during  part  of  the  year,  as  far  as  the 
Kebrabasa  rapids  (joo  miles),  though  shoals  must  be  avoided; 
above  that  p(^int  it  is  only  adapted  to  canoes.  The  Shire  tributary, 
which  leads  into  Lake  Xyasa,  though  also  interrupted  by  rapids, 
is  navigable  for  small  steamers.  Tims  all  these  ajiparently  great 
rivers  have  defects  more  or  less  serious,  decreasing  tlieir  value  as 
highways  to  the  interior.  The  Xigcr  is  the  freest,  and,  with  suitable 
roads  when  needed,  will  suffice  for  the  trade  of  the  region  for  a 
long  time.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Congo  now  that  the  rail- 
nxid  is  built,  or  in  the  process  of  completion.  What  is  more  doubt- 
ful is  whether  tlie  tratTic  over  the  line  will  for  a  long  time  be  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  railroad  pay. 

Except  in  those  parts  where  Europeans  have  been  settled  for 
some  time,  lliat  is,  on  tlie  north  and  south  borders,  there  are  no 
roads  in  Africa  worthy  of  the  name — none  on  which  any  large 
traffic  could  be  conducted.  Large  areas,  it  is  true,  in  the  center 
of  th.e  continent  arc  so  level  that  even  wlieeled  vehicles  could  be 
run  over  the  land ;  but  that  also  would  not  amount  to  much  in  the 
way  (ji  commerce.  Africa  is,  however,  covered  with  a  network  of 
roads  of  a  kind — native  paths  leading  frf)m  village  to  village,  formed 
by  the  naked  feet  of  many  generations  of  villagers,  but  only  broad 
enough  to  admit  of  single  file.  Beasts  of  burden  are  of  course 
scarcely  available  on  such  tracks,  and.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  over  the 
great  ])art  of  Africa  the  native  himself  is  the  only  beast  of  burden; 
under  such  conditions  no  serious  commerce  is  possible,  and  the 
sy-teni  of  whole-ale  slaxerv  almost  inevitable.  Tn  Xorth  Africa. 
all  over  the  de>ert.  in  l\gypt.  and  in  the  Sudan  states,  of  course, 
the  camel  is  found,  by  whose  aid  alone  has  it  been  possible  to  create 
highways  acrr)?s  the  dc-^ert.  In  Somaliland  there  is  a  fine  breed 
of  (I  nkeys,  and  there  camels  are  also  largely  used.  In  the  Sudan 
^tate-  the  lioTH-  !;as  been  introduced,  but  mainly  for  riding  ])ur- 
])'-e-.      Wlieie    h'.iir-pcaii-    arc    largely    settled     no    doubt    modern 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         301 

means  of  locomotion  are  found,  but  the  state  of  things  described 
is  rather  of  Africa  in  what  we  may  call  its  natural  condition,  before 
the  modern  European  invasion  began.  It  seems  strange  that  the 
natives  have  never  attempted  to  utilize  the  African  elephant  as  the 
Indian  has  done  its  Asiatic  congener.  There  is  some  evidence  that 
in  the  Roman  times  the  elephant  was  used  for  fighting  and  carry- 
ing purposes,  but  his  domestication  never  seems  to  have  become 
general  on  the  continent.  There  is  a  prevalent  opinion  that  the 
African  elephant  never  can  be  subdued  to  the  uses  of  humanity; 
but  no  serious  experiments  in  recent  times  have  yet  been  made. 
There  is  some  reason  to  hope  that,  now  that  Europe  has  taken 
the  continent  in  hand,  something  will  be  done  to  discover  whether 
this  native  force  cannot  really  be  utilized.  But  in  time,  no  doubt, 
every  region  likely  to  yield  results  to  commerce  will  be  tapped  by 
railroads.  To  the  south  of  the  Zambezi  a  network  is  being  rapidly 
constructed.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Algeria  and  Tunis.  In 
both  the  British  and  German  spheres  in  East  Africa  there  are  indi- 
cations that  in  no  long  time  the  interior  will  be  accessible  partly 
by  railroads  and  partly  by  roads. 

In  dealing  with  the  conditions  of  Africa,  without  doubt  the 
most  important  factor  to  be  met  with  on  the  surface  of  the  conti- 
nent is  the  native  himself,  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  science 
and  of  the  economical  development  of  the  continent.  It  is  quite 
impossible  to  deal  here  with  tlie  ethnology  of  Africa,  vastly  inter- 
esting as  it  is.  Though  language  is  not  always  a  safe  guide 
to  ethnical  affinities,  still,  on  the  whole,  in  Africa  it  presents  us 
with  a  very  important  key  to  the  great  divisions  of  its  popula- 
tion. To  the  superficial  observer  all  Africans  seem  at  first 
very  much  alike;  in  the  same  way,  no  doubt,  to  the  African  all 
Europeans,  all  whites  indeed,  have  a  family  resemblance.  Color 
has  much  to  do  with  this.  But  while  in  Africa,  as  among  ilie 
American  Indians,  and  as  among  a  large  part  of  the  population  of 
Central  Asia,  there  is  a  general  continental  type,  there  is  in  reality 
great  variety,  from  the  light-brown,  regular-featured  Berber  in 
the  north  to  the  yellow,  ugly  Hottentot  in  the  south.  In  a  general 
way  the  northern  and  northeastern  part  of  the  continent  is  given 
up  mostly  to  people  of  Semitic  and  ITamitic  stocks.  As  we  aj)- 
proach  the  Central  Sudan  this  merges  into  the  true  negro  type, 
which  prevails  over  the  whole  of  tlic  Xigcr  basin  down  tlirongli 
Senegambia  and  along  the  Gold  Coast,  cast-southeast  to  the  region 


302  A  F  lU  C  A 

aroinul  tlic  \'icti>ria  Xvanza.  throwing  a  broad  wedpe  northward 
into  tlic  Tihhu  country  of  Sahara.  Just  wlicre  the  continent  begins 
to  narrow,  ami  we  touch  upon  the  Congo  basin,  we  meet  with  what 
is  known  as  the  I'antu-spcaking  stock,  with  its  various  subdivisions, 
of  which  the  Zuhi  may  be  taken  as  a  liigh  type.  Scattered  among 
both  Xogn»cs  and  Bantus  are  found  remnants  of  various  otliers 
tvpcs.  Round  about  the  great  lakes  the  ruling  people  are  really 
llamitic.  In  many  places  over  the  center  of  Africa  pygmy  tribes 
are  met  with,  remains  probably  of  an  aboriginal  race  who  may  have 
liad  the  continent  to  themselves  long  before  Hamities.  Negroes, 
and  Hantus  invaded  it  from  Asia,  and  to  whom  the  Ilushmen  may 
be  allied.  The  Hottentots  also  seem  to  be  a  very  early  people,  quite 
unlike  any  otiier  African  race.  The  Fulah  people,  a  superior  race 
wh.o  prevail  in  the  Central  and  Western  Sudan,  differ  in  many 
respects  from  other  African  races.  These  are  the  main  distinctions 
of  race-types  in  Africa  so  far  as  linguistic  characteristics  go.  But 
from  the  i)oint  of  view  of  the  exploration  of  Africa,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  its  resources  by  Tuiropeans,  the  important  question  with 
regard  to  the  natives  is — Will  they  be  a  help  or  a  hindrance?  On 
other  continents,  in  North  America,  in  Australia,  the  (piestion  has 
l)een  solved  by  practically  getting  rid  of  the  natives  altogether. 
In  Africa  this  cannot  be  done,  any  more  than  in  India,  even  if 
concci\cd  to  be  to  the  interest  of  progress  to  do  so.  However 
it  may  be  in  the  very  remote  future,  at  present  little  can  be  accom- 
plished in  Central  Africa  without  the  help  of  the  natives.  The  na- 
ti\es  of  Africa,  except  in  tlie  more  intensely  Moslcmized  parts  in  the 
nortli,  can  nc\"er  be  said  to  ]ia\e  any  serious  hindrance  to  explora- 
i)f<n.  They  are  thcmselxes  in  many  parts  very  keen  traders.  Nearly 
the  wliole  of  North  Africa  (except  .\byssinia)  is  Mohammedan, 
and  that  tells  in  two  \\a}"s.  It  certainly  raises  the  native  in  the  scale 
(if  c:\ilization;  nt  the  same  time  it  is  a])t  to  create  a  fanatical 
a\c:"-:"n  to  luH'npean  intercourse.  Tliat  has  been  the  great  ob- 
stacle in  the  Central  Sudan,  in  Sokoto,  Kancm.  Wadai.  and  neigh- 
h'lring  slates  which  aic  yet  practically  in(le])en(lent.  h^rance  has 
'.\erc"!iie  i'  in  'I'uni'^  anrl  Algeria;  it  is  dormant  in  Ivgy|)t;  in  the 
old  I\L,'-y])iian  Sudan  it  i<  rampant  aniong  the  Mahdists  and  Se- 
ivji:->!tc- :  in  MiroccM  it  i>  still  a  barrier  to  free  intercourse.  The 
])c";;;e  (.f  X'l'-ih  Africa.  Moslem  or  other,  are  fairly  industrious. 
and  ii  once  t'lcir  enmity  were  ox'crcome  they  might  co(")perate 
N  crv  etfc  ■•■' .  •■'■•  "  ■''!  1  ".ur.  ■i)can>. 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         303 

For  the  future  development  of  Africa  it  is,  however,  with 
the  Negroes  and  Bantus  we  shall  have  mainly  to  reckon.  WitlKxit 
labor  we  cannot  develop  the  continent.  We  are  often  told  that 
the  Negro  is  a  lazy  being,  who  never  will  be  trained  to  habits  of 
industry.  But  as  a  universal  statement  facts  belie  that  assertion. 
When  he  can  pick  up  his  living  with  a  minimum  of  exertion,  he 
will  do  so — that  is  savage  nature.  But  in  South  Africa,  in  the 
Cape,  the  Transvaal,  Natal,  West  Africa,  and  elsewhere,  he  does 
work,  and  that  often  with  great  steadiness  and  regularity.  On 
some  of  the  plantations  of  the  Germans  inland  from  Zanzibar,  be- 
fore the  recent  troubles,  the  people  came  quite  willingly  to  work, 
induced  to  do  so  by  the  wages  offered.  At  the  same  time,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  voluntary  hard  work  is  nut  congenial  U)  a  people 
w^ho,  for  ages,  have  been  accustomed  to  do  no  more  tlian  tliey  were 
forced  to  do.  It  may  be  possible,  by  judicious  treatment,  to  lead 
the  natives  on  to  industrious  habits;  but  we  must  not  expect,  in 
this  and  other  matters,  to  force  them  in  a  generation  or  two  up 
to  a  stage  which  it  has  taken  us  2000  years  to  reach.  Meantime,  in 
Cape  Colony  and  Xatal  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  introduce 
labor  from  India  and  the  Malay  .Vrchipelago. 

There  are  many  questions  suggested  by  the  consideration  of 
this  subject  of  the  natives  of  Africa  into  which  we  cannot  liere 
enter.  With  the  intervention  of  European  powers,  the  cessation 
of  native  wars,  and  the  suppression  of  slave-raiding,  the  native 
population  is  bound  to  increase.  According  to  the  estimate  of 
Ravenstein,  one  of  the  most  competent  authorities,  the  total  popu- 
lation of  Africa  does  not  exceed  130.000.000.  /.  c  only  about  ten 
to  a  square  mile,  though  other  authorities  estimate  it  at  joo,ooo,ooo. 
But  the  continent,  comparatively  poor  as  it  is,  is  capable  of  sus- 
taining a  much  larger  population. 

If  the  European  occupation  and  exploitation  of  tlic  continent 
continues,  as  it  is  almost  bound  to  do.  something  must  be  done 
witli  and  for  the  natives.  It  is  to  be  feared  that,  so  far.  Cln-i>ii;in 
missions  have  not  had  the  effect  hoped  for.  But  belter  nieiliud- 
are  being  introduced.  The  great  thing  is  to  remember  tliat  tliehc 
natives  have  a  long  leeway  to  make  up:  that  violent  and  sudden 
interference  with  old-established  domestic  institutions  will  do  no 
good;  that  tact  and  firmness  and  just  treatment  will  accom])lisii 
a  great  deal;  and  that  a  Negro  cannot  by  any  amount  of  civili/iii.Lr 
influences  be  evolved  into  a  iMU'cnean. 


304  A  F  RICA 

What.  then,  is  tlic  practical  result  of  our  inquiry,  with  special 
reference  tn  the  economical  value  of  Africa?  Within  what  limits 
is  it  likely  to  bo  of  utility,  not  only  to  the  sparse  indigenous  popu- 
lation, but  to  humanity  at  large,  and  to  Kurojie  in  particular?  The 
(obstacles  which  have  hithertt)  kept  it  behind  all  the  other  continents 
will  alwavs  h.ive  more  or  less  weight;  but  they  are  obstacles  which 
are  by  no  means  invincible.  Let  us  first  take  the  central  zone, 
tropical  Africa,  two-thirds  of  the  continent,  which  has  been  the 
chief  field  of  the  recent  scramble.  Most  of  the  natural  riches  of 
the  continent  are  concentrated  in  this  region.  Even  in  gold  and 
silver,  in  copper  and  in  iron,  it  seems  to  have  fairly  abundant  stores. 
The  animal  product,  ivory,  comes  mainly  from  this  region.  Here 
we  meet  with  the  great  forests  and  a  wealth  of  vegetation  of  all 
kinds,  yielding  such  natural  products  as  rubber,  cocoanut  and  palm 
oils,  ground-nuts,  valuable  seeds  of  various  kinds,  fibers,  gums, 
and  many  other  natural  products  of  commercial  value.  We  know 
from  actual  experiments  that  much  of  this  area  is  well  adapted  to 
such  cultivable  products  as  rice  and  maize,  tobacco  and  coffee, 
indigo  and  cotton.  Bananas  and  other  tropical  and  subtropical 
fruits  grow  in  abundance,  or  could  be  cultivated  to  any  extent. 
In  many  districts  cattle  are  raised  in  enormous  numbers,  and  under 
skilled  direction  could  be  increased  and  improved  in  quality,  both 
for  food  purposes  and  for  their  hides.  Goats  are  common,  and  in 
the  Central  Sudan  sheep  are  raised.  About  the  fertility  of  the 
<o\\.  over  at  least  one-half  of  the  area,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Thus 
it  is  evident  that  if  we  simply  confined  ourselves  to  the  natural 
products  of  Central  Africa,  and  utilized  them  judiciously,  so  as  not 
I' I  exhaust  tliem,  a  fair  commerce  could  be  created.  Still  the  mere 
natural  animal  and  vegetable  products  of  a  tropical  country  could 
nc\er  }-:e]d  a  trade  of  great  dimensions;  the  demand  is  too  limited, 
granted  that  t!ie  supply  is  abundant.  The  common  food  products. 
the  C'-mmon  textiles — corn  of  all  kinds,  cotton,  wool,  hemp — these 
with  tlic  useful  minerals  form  the  vast  bulk  of  commerce  of  our 
own  .-md  e\ery  other  country.  At  present  it  is  estimated  that  the 
total  export-  of  t]]c  whole  of  Central  Africa  by  the  east  and  west 
C'jasts  d')  IT  it  amount  to  more  than  $100,000,000  annually.  Even 
this  i->  ci'ii-idered  by  some  authorities  an  excessive  estimate;  yet 
11  i>  a  grca;  deal  ]{'S>  than  the  export  trade  of  Canada  alone.  If 
we  corl'!  ruld  to  tlii<  the  cultivation,  on  a  large  scale,  of  some  of 
the  u-er.-'  icoiliict-  referred  lo  abo\e,  and  if  these  could  compete 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         305 

favorably  with  similar  products  from  other  parts  of  the  world,  the 
commercial  value  of  Africa  would  be  greatly  increased.  More- 
over, as  the  population  increased,  as  colonization  advanced  and 
wants  multiplied,  the  native  market  itself  might  become  of  increas- 
ing importance. 

What,  then,  is  wanted  to  develop  the  natural  resources  of 
Africa,  and  utilize  the  capabilities  of  its  soil?  First  of  all,  we  must 
have  easy  and  cheap  means  of  communication  if  a  great  export 
and  import  trade  is  to  be  developed.  There  may  be  the  finest  cattle, 
rice,  corn,  tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  in  the  world,  around  Tanganyika, 
Albert  Nyanza,  Victoria  Nyanza,  Xyasa ;  but  if  the  produce  can 
only  be  brought  to  the  coast  on  men's  or  even  elephants'  backs, 
it  would  not  have  a  chance  of  success.  Of  course,  if  the  river- 
navigation  were  improved,  if  the  impassable  sections  of  the  Congo 
and  the  Niger,  the  Nile  and  the  Zambezi,  were  bridged  by  railroads, 
it  would  greatly  improve  the  prospects  of  success.  Still  more,  if 
there  were  direct  communication  by  rail  from  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent. But  this  is  a  prospect  of  the  distant  future.  In  that  future 
the  population  of  the  world,  at  its  present  rate,  will  have  vastly  in- 
creased, and  increased  supplies  of  the  common  necessaries  of  life 
will  be  required.  IMeantime,  in  addition  to  making  the  best  of  the 
native  products,  we  can  do  little  more  than  experiment,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  experiments  are  being  made  in  various  quarters. 
Until,  however,  the  transport  question  of  products  in  bulk  has 
been  solved,  the  central  regions  of  Africa,  tliough  fertile,  are  prac- 
tically useless.  But  in  the  meantime  experiments  should  be  made 
universally.  We  want  to  know  what  can  be  made  of  the  vast  ])latcau 
region  round  the  great  lakes,  and  of  tlie  low  countries  which  they 
dominate.  The  rivalry  among  the  so-called  European  splieres  in 
Africa  is  so  great  that  in  a  very  few  years  we  must  have  a  much 
more  precise  idea  than  we  have  now  of  what  can  be  made  of  this 
whole  region. 

It  is  here,  however,  that  the  importance  of  the  consideration 
already  discussed  becomes  apparent;  if  the  way  were  (|uite  clear, 
otherwise,  if  means  of  communication  were  all  that  could  be  wished, 
through  what  human  agency  is  the  work  to  be  carried  on?  So  far 
as  our  present  knowledge  goe-.  the  native  is  alxr.lntcly  indispen- 
sable to  the  development  of  trojjical  Africa.  Our  soincwiial  scanty 
experience  tends  to  prove  tliat  Knropcans.  even  s'>utlicrn  hhn-ojjcans. 
could  not  do  the  hard  dailv  w(jrk  tliat  is  rc(|uircd — in  the  forest,  in 


ai)6  A  I'  U  1  C  A 

tlie  ficKl.  in  plantations,  in  mines — to  render  Central  Africa  of  com- 
mercial \aluc.  It  is  uol  only  the  malaria  that  constantly  broods 
over  the  coa'-t  and  [he  low-lyinj^  rixcr-courscs,  and  is  set  at  liberty 
to  i)oison  ilic  ainuispl'.cro  wlicn  the  rolling  soil  is  stirred;  the  mere 
heat  oi  the  iropics  >ocnis  lo  incai)acitate  Europeans  for  work  of 
this  kiiul.  If.  ihcn.  tlic  native  cannot  be  employed  in  this  direction, 
labor  must  bo  iniroduccd  from  rctj^ions  the  natives  of  which  c<Hild 
l>e  reailily  acclimaii/.cd.  Bui  experience  ])roves,  as  has  been  said, 
that  there  is  no  reason  completely  lo  desjjair  of  the  y\frican  native; 
that  in  time  he  may  take  to  fairly  regular  hal)its  of  industry. 

But  what  about  the  while  man  himself?  Apart  altogether 
irom  tlic  ([iiestion  oi  hard  manual  daily  labor,  can  he  settle  in 
Central  Africa  in  any  great  numbers?  Tlie  prevailing  belief  on 
the  subject  has  been  already  referred  to;  but  even  after  obtaining 
all  the  information  ])ossib!e  from  men  who  have  had  experience 
in  \ari(His  parts  of  Africa,  tlie  data  which  we  possess  on  the  sub- 
ject are  extremely  scanty.  We  find  on  the  Xyasa-Tanganyika 
plateau  missionaries  and  traders  living  with  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren ;  but  the  experiment  has  not  been  tried  long  enough  to  admit 
of  any  conclusion  being  drawn.  lunin  i\asha  lived  in  the  equatorial 
province  for  twelve  years;  so  did  Mackay.  the  missionary,  in 
I'gaiida ;  .and  tlierc  are  other  isolated  instances  of  the  same  kind. 
l^)Ut  what  is  wanted  is  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  l'A:r(t})can  residence  in  troi)ical  coinitries.  based  on  existing 
data,  and  on  data  to  be  collected  in  the  future  from  Central  Africa. 
We  know  absolutely  tliai  o\cr  ncarl}-  the  whole  (^f  the  west  coast 
of  troj)ical  Africa  a  re>idence  of  only  two  years  is  risky,  and  it  is 
so  too  o\er  much  ui  the  ea.>t  coast.  With  regard  to  the  higher 
land-  in  tlie  center,  the  general  belief  is  that  a  healthy  and  vigcjrous 
huni;.n  race,  say  a  race  (*f  our  own  type,  could  not  be  reared  for 
many  succc-sive  generation.^  e\'en  on  the  high  i)lateaus  of  Ccntrrd 
Africa.  The  experiment  will;  .'southern  lun'oj)eans — Italians, 
r;v,,<j!^<.  .^pani.-li.  .Mahe>e.  rortuguese — lias  ncxCr  been  tried  on  suf- 
iicient!y  great  a  scale  to  admit  of  safe  conc!u.>i«ins  being  dra.wii. 
Meant:!;ie  tl:e  j)r('li:eni  is  not  of  immediate  moment.  It  would  be 
madne--  to  criC'  r.rai^e  co](juization  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term  in 
Centr.il  Africa  at  pre.-ent.  If  the  continent  is  to  l)e  developed. 
I'.uroj;e:ui  n:e;i  mn-t  go  and  fix  themselves  at  various  favorable 
.-rations  i,'\er  tlie  center,  but  they  mn.-t  go  as  unattached  j)ioneers. 

Xo\v.  br'e;'\-.  :■  -  to  ;'.e  n"rtli  and  tlic  -■>ntli  of  the  coiuinent. 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         SOT 

The  Sahara  we  need  not  discuss.  There  is  plenty  of  water  under- 
neath its  inhospitable  sands.  On  the  borders  of  Algeria  that  water 
is  being  tapped  with  great  success,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
date-trees  are  yielding  profitable  results ;  but  the  demand  for  dates 
is  not  such  as  to  encourage  their  cultivation  over  2,000,000  square 
miles.  Under  French  domination,  especially  if  railways  are  con- 
structed across  the  desert,  no  doubt  oases  will  be  created  at  intervals, 
but  the  Sahara  is  likely  to  remain  much  as  it  is  until  a  very  remote 
future.  The  grass-lands  which  fringe  its  southern  border  and 
go  on  to  the  fertile  Central  Sudan  might  no  doubt  be  turned  to 
good  account  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  in  time  will  be.  With 
regard  to  the  countries  along  the  j\Iediterranean  border,  certainly 
much  of  the  Tripoli  coast  region  is  not  much  better  than  desert ; 
but  Tunis,  Algeria,  Morocco,  along  the  coast-lands,  and  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Atlas  and  the  valleys  among  the  mountains,  notwith- 
standing the  occasional  lack  of  rainfall,  are  all  of  distinct  value, 
both  from  the  point  of  view  of  commerce  and  colonization.  With 
regard  to  European  colonization,  a  ccMumunication  on  the  subject, 
received  from  Sir  Lambert  Playfair,  British  rej^resentative  in  Al- 
geria, may  be  cjuoted ;  it  may  be  held  as  applying  to  all  Mediterranean 
countries : 

"  I  think  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  any  Anglo-Saxons 
to  settle  here  as  actual  laborers.  They  could  work  in  agricultural 
pursuits  during  the  winter  months  as  well  as,  or  better  than,  in 
England,  but  they  would  never  stand  the  heat  of  summer,  excc])t 
perhaps  in  a  few  very  favored  localities.  As  employers  of  labor, 
of  course,  the  case  is  different,  and  anyone  could  live  and  prosper 
here.  Marshal  MacMahon  made  the  experiment;  he  got  out  a 
colony  of  Irish,  men,  women,  and  children,  but  they  were  a 
complete  failure;  many  died  and  the  remainder  had  to  be  sent 
home  very  soon.  They  suffered  from  fe\-cr,  sunstroke,  and  general 
demoralization.  W"ith  regard  to  the  Latin  races  it  is  quite  dillcrcnt  ; 
but  for  them  colonization  in  this  country  would  be  at  a  standstill. 
The  Italians  in  the  east  and  the  Si)aniar(ls  in  tlie  west  are  the  most 
useful  classes  of  the  ])opulation.  W'itii  tlicni  may  be  classed  Maltese 
and  natives  of  the  south  of  b'rancc.  Otlier  Mediterranean  nations 
are  not  represented  here.  It  is  (|niie  wondert'ul  to  see  liow  tin- 
Spanish  alfa-gatherers — men.  women,  and  children — suiip'Tt  the 
alternations  of  great  cold  and  intense  heat  on  the  high  plate.an-, 
with  hardlv  anv  shelter;    an  Lniiii'^li  lahnrei-  \^■.:■king  tiiere  in  <nii; 


308  A  F  R  I  C  A 

nier  would  l)e  dead  m  a  week.  As  a  £]feneral  rule,  you  may  safely  say 
that  natives  of  northern  Europe  cannot  support  the  climate  of  North 
Africa  as  actual  laborers,  and  only  moderately  well  as  employers 
of  labor." 

This,  of  course,  applies  with  very  much  greater  force  to 
Central  Africa.  Still,  even  in  North  Africa,  the  natives  themselves, 
the  Arab  and  Jew  population,  can  never  he  dispensed  with,  and  must 
cooperate  with  the  Europeans  in  developing  the  countries.  Iron 
abounds,  siher  is  found,  cereals,  vines,  tobacco,  olives,  and  other 
products  are  exlensi\ely  grown,  and  no  doubt  there  is  ample  room 
for  industrial  development  in  all  these  countries,  including  Mo- 
rocco. There  is  no  reason  why  Greeks  and  other  southern  Euro- 
peans could  not  settle  with  their  families  in  Egypt;  but,  so  far  as 
actual  work  goes,  Egypt  is  not  for  the  European.  Along  the  region 
watered  by  tlie  Nile  there  is  no  doubt  that  Egypt  is  capable  of  much 
greater  development  than  she  has  yet  attained. 

With  regard  to  South  Africa — that  is  to  say,  Africa  south  of 
the  Zambezi — here  we  find  that  the  western  half,  and  the  south 
away  from  the  coast,  have  but  a  scanty  rainfall.  The  natural 
vegetable  products  are  of  but  poor  account ;  even  ivory  is  now 
obtained  in  comparatively  insignificant  quantity.  But  to  balance 
this,  it  is  the  richest  region  in  all  Africa  for  minerals.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  productive  gold  regions — if  not  absolutely  the  most 
productive — in  {he  world.  The  return  of  the  output  of  gold  from 
November,  1891,  to  June.  1900,  was  125,662  ounces.  It  is  through 
its  gold  that  Australia  has  been  able  to  advance  so  rapidly  in  all 
directi(jns;  so  it  is  likely  to  be  in  South  Africa,  especially  in  at- 
tracting a  large  and  vigorous  white  population.  The  diamonds 
r.f  South  Africa  are  well  known,  and  its  coal,  its  iron,  its  copper, 
are  natural  riches  of  high  importance.  Notwithstanding  the 
meagerness  of  its  rainfall,  the  southern  half  of  the  region  has 
])rfivcd  a  fiiie  field  for  sheep  and  cattle  raising,  not  to  mention 
o.-tricli-farming.  Tlie  inhabitants  have  already  found  out  methods 
of  stf^rnig  tlie  rain  which  does  fall,  and  no  doubt  they  will  find 
means  of  tapi)ing  the  underground  water  supply.  The  country  may 
grow  all  tlie  corn  it  requires  for  its  own  wants,  though  it  may  never 
have  mucli  Uj  spare  for  export.  It  is  a  splendid  vine  region,  and 
botli  tea  and  sugar  can  be  grown  successfully  in  some  parts.  \n 
other  ]>:'.:■[-  well  to  tlic  north,  where  the  water-supply  is  abundant, 
tlie  general  altitude  'n  .-o  great  ihat  it  is  ho[)cd  that  in  time  it  may 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         309 

become  the  home  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  of  European 
origin.  Even  in  the  subtropical  parts,  away  from  the  low-lying 
regions  and  the  river-beds,  Europeans  seem  to  prosper.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  surprising  to  find  that  South  Africa  already  sustains  a 
white  population  of  considerably  over  500,000,  and  that  it  has 
been  colonized  by  generations  of  Europeans,  who  thrive  as  well 
as  they  do  at  home.  While  the  native  cannot,  of  course,  be  com- 
pared to  the  English  mechanic  or  peasant  or  navvy,  he  still  works 
well  enough  in  his  own  way,  while  thousands  of  ]\Ialays  and  Indian 
coolies  have  been  imported.  South  Africa,  in  short,  is  the  one 
region  in  which  we  can  say  with  confidence  that  European  coloniza- 
tion, in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term,  is  possible.  It  does  an  annual 
trade  amounting  to  over  $200,000,000. 

It  is  tropical  Africa,  because  it  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the 
continent,  which  forms  the  great  problem  of  the  future  to  be 
faced  by  those  European  nations  which  have  taken  the  desti- 
nies of  Africa  upon  their  shoulders;  and  what  is  true  of  that 
applies  more  or  less  even  to  the  small  sections  outside  of  the 
tropics.  Had  Africa  been  in  the  same  geographical  position 
as  North  America,  or  even  Australia,  the  problem  would  have 
been  simple  enough;  it  is  to  be  feared  it  would  have  been 
solved  by  getting  rid  of  the  natives  altogether.  It  may  be 
that  in  the  far  future  science  may  discover  some  means  of  accli- 
matizing Europeans  in  tropical  Africa,  but  so  far  as  our  present 
know^ledge  goes,  that  is  impossible.  ?Jen  and  even  w^omen  may  with 
due  precautions  live  in  tropical  .Vfrica  for  years,  but  sooner  or 
later  they  must  return  to  recruit  their  exhausted  energies  in  their 
native  air.  All  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  the  colonizatii^n 
of  Central  Africa  by  whites  is  impossible:  that  means,  of  course, 
that  if  the  resources  of  the  continent  are  to  be  developed,  it  must 
be  by  the  help  of  the  natives.  V>y  themselves  it  does  not  seem  at 
all  probable  that  the  natives  could  c\'er  do  more  than  live  from  hand 
to  mouth,  or  would  ever  do  more  work  than  absolute  necessity 
compelled  them  to  do.  If,  then,  anything  is  to  be  made  of  Central 
Africa,  and  of  its  natural  resources — mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal 
— and  if  the  capabilities  of  its  soil  are  to  Ijc  tiu'ncd  to  gDod  account, 
it  must  be  done  by  the  natives  under  tlic  guidance  (if  otiiers  who 
have  reached  a  higher  stage  of  ci\-ilizati! 'U  tlian  ihey  have. 

The  subject  is  so  important  that  \vc  may  i)c  pardoned  tor  retcr- 
ring  to  it  once  again  in  this  concluding  cha|)tci".     It  is  olten  said. 


MO  AFRICA 

although  there  arc  umlouhtcd  instances  of  African  natives  being 
iiulnccil  to  uiulcriakc  hard  work,  for  wages,  of  their  own  free  will, 
that  tlic  African  native  never  will  work  unless  forced  to  do  so. 
Well,  there  are  various  kinds  of  force;  slavery  is  not  the  only  fonn 
of  compulsion  that  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  humanity.  How  far 
force,  even  of  the  most  gentle  kind,  may  be  used  for  the  ostensible 
good  of  a  people  at  the  stage  of  development  of  the  African  is  too 
delicate  a  qucsti(Mi  to  discuss  here.  The  compulsion  exercised  by 
the  Dutch  in  their  liast  India  colonies  has  certainly  led  to  good 
results  for  all  CDUcerned.  Arab  domination  in  Africa  is  not  in  the 
least  desirable:  but  undoubtedly  the  Arabs  on  the  Middle  Congo, 
bef(»re  they  were  ejected  by  the  Belgians,  had  greatly  changed  the 
face  of  the  country  and  elevated  the  condition  of  their  retainers  by 
sheer  force  of  example.  Many  Arabs  had  settled  in  the  Middle  and 
Upper  Ct)ngt)  region :  they  had  sown  fields  of  rice,  planted  bananas 
and  other  trees,  built  themselves  good  houses,  and  otherwise  shown 
their  followers  how  to  live  in  comfort.  The  latter  were  not  slow  to 
imitate  their  masters,  and  several  towns  of  comparatively  good 
houses  had  grown  up,  and  large  areas  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  natives,  who  a  few  years  ago  lived  in  the  wildest  savagery, 
come  hundreds  of  miles  voluntarily  to  beg  for  work  in  these  planta- 
tions. Many  of  them  have  been  trained  to  various  trades;  in  this 
region  a  church,  designed  by  a  Scotch  missionary,  was  built  entirely 
by  llie  nati\cs  under  a  s\-steni  of  free  labor.  The  missionary  and 
his  colleagues  taught  the  natives  to  make  bricks,  burn  lime,  and  hew 
timber.  All  the  materials  were  found  on  the  spot,  except  glass 
iiuernal  iittings.  and  some  portion  of  the  roofing;  and  they  were 
put  together,  brick  upon  brick,  by  the  natives  themselves,  free  la- 
brirers  under  wliite  sujjerintendence.  Here  there  is  not  the  least 
stT-picion  of  compulsion;  and  the  result  is  w'onderful,  though  cer- 
tainly exceptional. 

ITicre  is  one  thing  upon  which  all  the  powers,  it  is  hoped,  are 
now  at  least  ilieorctically  agreed,  and  tiiat  is,  that  slave-raiding  and 
?!a\-e-export  must  Ije  put  down.  If  Africa  is  e\'er  to  be  governed 
and  utilized,  tliei-c  i<  no  dop.bt  iiiat  tlie  sl:i\c'-1rade  is  doomed,  and 
that  on  the  ea-t  coast  it  will  '^of.u  be  as  nearly  extinct  as  it  is  on 
t]ie  v.-e-t.  liit'M'ial  dome-tic  slavery  is  anritlier  tiling;  it  will  only 
vanish  wlien  l".iiropea!i  nations  will  not  i)crmit  tlie  districts  in  which 
tliey  are  in!e:r-.;ed  t^  be  denuded  of  labor  in  order  to  sujiply  slaves 
to  v.  'rl-;  '■'(•■,'.' {.re.  ;ui>!   when  tlie  advantage  of   free  labi^r  conns 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF    AFRICA        Sll 

home  to  the  native  (who  must  before  then  rise  degrees  higher  in 
the  scale  of  civiHzation  than  he  is  now).  The  act  passed  by  the 
Brussels  Anti-Slavery  Conference  in  1890-1891,  and  signed  by  all 
the  leading  powers,  as  well  as  those  having  an  interest  in  Africa,  has 
for  its  object  the  suppression  of  slave-raiding,  the  control  over  arms, 
and  the  stoppage  of  the  importation  of  spirituous  drinks.  The  obli- 
gations imposed  upon  the  powers  are  very  serious,  and  if  faithfully 
and  unitedly  carried  out  would  soon  accomplish  the  object  of  the 
act.  We  give  the  leading  provisions  of  the  act  as  summarized  by 
P.  L.  M'Dermott  in  his  excellent  work  on  "  British  East  Africa  " : 

On  September  17,  1888,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  addressed 
a  dispatch  to  Lord  Vivian,  the  British  Ambassador  at  Brus- 
sels, suggesting  that  the  King  of  the  Belgians  should  take  the 
initiative  in  inviting  a  conference  of  the  powers  at  Brussels  to 
concert  measures  for  the  "  gradual  suppression  of  the  slave-trade 
on  the  continent  of  Africa,  and  the  immediate  closing  of  all  the 
external  markets  which  It  supplies."  After  a  sketch  of  the  present 
state  of  the  sea-borne  slave-trade,  the  markets  supplied  by  it,  and 
the  difficulties  encountered  in  clearing  the  seas  of  the  traffic,  Lord 
Salisbury  represented  that,  while  the  British  Government  would 
cheerfully  continue  "  to  bear  the  burden  of  further  measures  to 
effect  the  common  object,"  they  felt  that  the  altered  political  condi- 
tions of  the  African  seaboard  now  called  for  united  action  on  the 
part  of  the  powers  responsible  for  its  control,  with  a  view  to  closing 
the  foreign  slave-markets  and  discouraging  the  internal  slave-hunts. 

The  conference  assembled  at  Brussels  in  November,  1889,  and 
continued  its  sitting  till  July  2,  1890,  when  a  general  act  was  agreed 
to,  embodying  the  conclusions  of  their  deliberations.  Tlie  confer- 
ring powers,  "  equally  animated,"  in  the  words  of  the  preamble. 
"  by  the  firm  intention  of  putting  an  end  to  the  crimes  and  devasta- 
tions engendered  by  the  traffic  in  African  slaA-es,  protecting  effec- 
tively the  aboriginal  populations  of  Africa,  and  ensuring  for  that 
vast  continent  the  benefits  of  peace  and  civilization."  declared  tliat 
the  most  effective  means  for  counteracting  the  slave-trade  in  the 
interior  of  Africa  are  the  following: 

1.  Progressive  organizaticjn  of  the  administrative,  judicial, 
religious,  and  military  services  in  the  African  territories  placed 
under  the  sovereignty  or  j^rotectorate  of  civilized  nations. 

2.  Gradual  establishment  in  the  interior,  by  the  powers  to 
which  the  territories  are  subject,  of  strongly  (jccnpicd  stations  in 


S12  AFRICA 

such  a  way  as  to  make  tlieir  protective  or  repressive  action  effectively 
felt  in  the  territories  devastated  by  slave-hunting". 

3.  Construction  of  roads,  and  in  particular  of  railroads,  con- 
necting the  advanced  stations  with  the  coast,  and  permitting  easy 
access  to  the  inland  waters,  and  to  such  of  the  upper  courses  of  the 
rivers  and  streams  as  are  broken  by  rapids  and  cataracts,  in  view 
of  substituting  economical  and  rapid  means  of  transport  for  the 
present  means  of  carriage  by  men. 

4.  Establishment  of  steamboats  on  the  inland  navigable  waters 
and  on  the  lakes,  supported  by  fortified  posts  established  on  the 
banks. 

5.  Establishment  of  telegraphic  lines,  ensuring  the  communica- 
tion of  posts  and  stations  with  the  coast  and  with  the  administrative 
centers. 

6.  Organization  of  expeditions  and  flying  columns  to  keep 
up  the  communication  of  the  stations  with  each  other  and  with  the 
coast,  to  support  repressive  action,  and  to  ensure  the  security  of 
high-roads. 

7.  Restriction  of  the  importation  of  firearms,  at  least  of  mod- 
ern pattern,  and  of  ammunition,  throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the 
territories  infected  by  the  slave-trade. 

The  powers  were  authorized  by  Article  IV.  to  delegate  their 
engagements  under  the  act  to  chartered  companies,  wdiile  them- 
selves, however,  remaining  "  directly  responsible  for  the  engage- 
ments which  they  contract  by  the  present  Act,"  and  guaranteeing 
the  execution  thereof.  Great  Britain  had  already  for  many  years 
watched  the  inaritime  slave-traffic  with  her  cruisers  at  a  considerable 
annual  expense;  but  as  Lord  Salisbury  confessed  in  his  dispatch 
suggesting  the  conference,  the  policing  of  the  high  seas  and  coast 
waters  had  proved  to  be  of  but  little  efficacy  in  suppressing  the 
slave-trade.  The  primary  ol)jcct  of  the  conference  was  to  direct 
measures  of  repression  and  extinction  against  the  evil  at  its  sources 
in  the  interior,  by  the  adoption  of  as  many  of  the  means  cniunerated 
as  were  practicable.  Thus  the  duty  imposed  on  Great  Britain  is  to 
open  up  her  African  'sphere  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  slave-raiding 
not  only  impossible,  but  unprofitable.  It  remains  to  be  seen  how 
far  s!ie  will  do  her  duty  in  this  respect. 

With  tlic  help  of  the  natives,  then,  what  could  be  made  of 
Afric^'i?"  .\t  pre'^cnt.  Africa  occupies  a  i)oor  place  in  the  commerce 
of  the  world.     Its  total  cxjjorts  hardly  exceed  $300,000,000.     India 


ECONOMIC     VALUE     OF     AFRICA         313 

alone,  covering  only  1,500,000  square  miles,  exports  to  the  value 
of  $450,000,000.  Of  the  African  $300,000,000  some  two-thirds 
come  from  the  Mediterranean  states  and  Egypt  on  the  one  side, 
and  South  Africa  on  the  other,  leaving  only  one-third  for  the 
whole  of  the  center  of  the  continent.  Surely  more  could  be  made 
of  it  than  this.  Even  if  its  oil,  and  its  gums,  and  its  rubber,  and 
other  natural  vegetable  products  were  developed  as  they  might  be, 
they  would  yield  far  more  to  commerce.  At  present  the  world  is 
fairly  well  supplied  with  such  products  from  other  quarters;  the 
time  will  come,  however,  as  population  grows,  when  the  world  will 
require  additional  fields  for  food  and  other  supplies.  Barren  and 
dry  as  much  of  Central  Africa  is,  there  is  ample  space  for  cultivation 
of  various  kinds,  and  for  the  raising  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Grain 
and  cotton,  indigo  and  tea,  and  tobacco,  coffee,  and  sugar,  are  all 
products  adapted  to  various  parts  of  Central  Africa.  We  can  do 
without  draw'ing  upon  Africa  for  these  things  at  present,  but  the 
time  will  come  when  she  must  become  one  of  the  feeding-grounds 
of  the  world.  Moreover,  with  the  spread  of  European  domination, 
native  wars  must  cease,  and  slave-trading  be  abolished,  and  so  the 
population  is  bound  to  increase.  Surely  if  India,  on  1,500,000 
square  miles,  can  sustain  300,000,000  of  people,  Africa,  on 
11,500,000,  might  w^ell  be  the  home  of  three  times  its  present  popu- 
lation ;  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  if  the  African  were  as  industrious 
as  the  native  Indian  his  continent  would  bear  a  very  different  aspect 
from  that  which  it  does  at  present. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


THE    PARTITION    OF   AFRICA 

The  following  table  has  been  compiled  (in  round  numbers)  from  the  States- 
man's Year  Book.  The  figures  relating  to  population  represent  in  most  cases 
the  roughest  of  estimates ;  and,  in  some  places,  are  derived  from  censuses, 
which,  though  the  most  recent,  are  some  years  old : 


British   Africa: 

IVest  Africa:  Area ; 

Gambia    

Sierra  Leone  

Gold    Coast 

Lagos    

Nigeria   

South  and  Central  Africa: 

Cape    Colony   and   dependencies.... 

Natal    

Orange    River    Colon}- 

Transvaal    Colony    

Basutoland    

Bechuanaland   Protectorate 

Rhodesia    

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate 
East  Africa: 

Zanzibar  and   Pemba 

British  East  Africa   Protectorate.. 

Uganda    Protectorate 

Somaliland    

Islands: 

Sokotra    

Mauritius   and   dependencies 

St.  Helena,   Ascension  and  Tristan 

da    Cunha 

Fren'ch  Africa: 

Algeria   

Tunis  

Western    .Saiiara 

Senegal     

Scnegamljia  and   Niger 

French    (Guinea    

Ivory    Coast 

Dahomey    

Congo    

SI  7 


Square  Miles. 

Population, 

4.500 

90,000 

34,000 

1,076,000 

71,300 

I , 500 , 000 

29 , 000 

I , 500 , 000 

400,000 

25,000,000 

277,000 

2,410,000 

35,000 

1,000,000 

50 , 000 

3^7 ■ 000 

I 20 , 000 

I  .-70,000 

10,300 

2(14,000 

213,000 

200 , 000 

380,000 

1 ,  20( ) ,  000 

42,200 

I ,000,000 

1,000 

200 , 000 

350,000 

4 , 000 , 000 

80,000 

4 , 000 . 000 

60,000 

300 ,  00' ) 

1.380 

I 2 , 000 

1,100 

3R0 , 000 

T30 


1 0 , noo 


184,500 

4 ,  7V^  •  oi^o 

5 1 , 000 

I ,(;()(),()( 10 

,544,000 

J.  550, 000 

806 , 000 

.1.5  23. 000 

:j  1 0 ,  000 

3.000,000 

i;5,ooo 

J. JDO.OOO 

I  10,000 

J,()MO.Oii.:i 

()0,000 

I  .OOO.CKIU 

150,000 

I0,OOO.(iC)0 

818  A  r  r  E  M)  I X 

I'rencm  Africa,  continued:  An 

S<inia!i    Coast    aiul    (U-pondcncics.  . . 

Rniiiion    

MailaRasoar   and    Islands 

O-RMAN  Akkua: 

( Cmicroons)     Kaincnin 

Tosolaiul     

Southwest    Africa 

I'ast    A friia    

roRTlGlKSE    AfRUA: 

Angola    

Kast    Africa 

Guinea 

St.  Thome  and   Principe 

Cape  Verde  Islands 

Spanish  Africa: 

Rio  de  Oro  and   Adrar 

Rio   Muni  and   Cape   San  Juan.... 

I'Vrnando   Po.    Annabon,    Corisco, 

I'.lobey,    San    Juan 850  23,700 

Italian  Africa: 

I'.ritrea    ^8,500  450,000 

Somaliland    loo.ooo  400,000 

\0MINAI.I.Y  Tl'RKISH    AkKICA  : 

FgA-pt,    etc 400,000  1,000,000 

I'.^yptian    Sudan 950,000  2,000,000 

Tripoli,  Barca,  I-czzan 400,000  1,000,000 

InDEI'KNDENT.    UK.    NOMINALLY    SO: 

Ahyssinia    150,000  3,500,000 

Conpo  l>ec  State 900,000  30,000,000 

Liberia    35, 000  2,o()0,ooo 

Morocco 219,000  5,000,000 


Square  Miles 

Population 

li.OOO 

50 , noo 

g6() 

173.000 

2j8,6oo 

2,560,000 

101,100 

3 . 500 , 000 

33.700 

1,500,000 

322.450 

200,000 

3^,200 

7,000,000 

485,000 

4,i_'0.ooo 

301,000 

3,120,000 

4.440 

820,000 

^(K) 

42,100 

1,480 

147.400 

70,000 

130,000 

9,000 

140,000 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  following  comprehensive  list  of  books  represents  the  consensus  of 
opinion  respecting  the  literature  of  the  subject  of  Africa  and  has  been  prepared 
for  the  publishers  with  the  advice  of  librarians  and  specialists  in  African  affairs. 
An  extended  bibliography,  including  works  on  related  subjects  as  well  as  tlie 
hundreds  of  books,  pamphlets,  articles,  etc.,  of  descriptive,  geographical,  philo- 
sophic, missionary  or  historic  interest,  to  say  nothing  of  official  reports  and  Blue 
Books,  would  be  out  of  keeping  with  the  practical  purpose  of  this  reading 
list.  In  general,  preference  has  been  given  here  to  the  more  recent  literature 
pertaining  to  the  Continent,  though  some  standard  works,  generally  accepted  as 
permanent  contributions,  have  been  preserved.  The  titles  of  the  works  them- 
selves will  for  the  most  part  sufficiently  indicate  their  scope  and  character, 
but  an  occasional  brief  comment  is  added. 

HISTORY   AND    BIOGRAPHY 

American   Economic   Association. — "  Essays   in   Colonial    Finance."     Publication 

of  August,    1900. 
Bacon,  R.  H. — "  Benin,  the  City  of  Blood."     New  York. 

The   story  of  the   Benin  Expedition  of    1897. 
"  Bibliothequc   Colonialc  Internationale."     13   vols.     Bruxclles,    1895-1899. 
Boshart,    A. — "  Zchn   Jahre   africanisehcn   Lebens."     Leipzig.    1898. 
Bourne,   E.   G. — "  Essays   in   Historical   Criticism."     New   York,   1901. 
Brown,  Robert. — "  The  Story  of  Africa  and  its  Explorers."     London,   iS<;5. 
Brunialti,  A, — "  Le  Colonie  degli  Italiani."     Torino,   1897. 
Bryce,  J. — "  Impressions   of   South   Africa."     Third   edition.     London,    i8()q. 
Butler,    A.   J. — "  The   Arab   Conquest   of   Egypt   and   tlie   Last   Thirty   Years   of 

Roman    Dominion."      Oxford,    1902. 
Chailley-Bert,   P. — "La  Tanisie  et  la  Colonisation  I'rainaise."     Pari-^,   1896. 
Cliarme,  P.  De — "  Compa^nies  et  Societes  Coloniales  /Ulemandes."     Paris.   1903. 
"  Der  deutschc  Export  naeh  den   Tropen."     Berlin,   1900. 
Churchill,  Winston  Spencer. — "The  River  War."     2  vols.     London,  i8o<). 

A  military  chronicle  of  the  reconqucst  of  the  Sudan,  with  a  general   survey 

of  the  geography   and   history  of  the  country  by  way  of   introductinn. 
Colquhoun,  Archil)ald  C. — "  Matabeleland :    the  War  and  our  Position  in  South 
Africa."     London,    1893. 

The  author   is  well-informed   and  his   discussion   of  the  proceedings   ^f  the 

British    South    Africa   Company,   of   which   he   was   the   first   adnuuislr.itnr, 

furnishes   a   reliable    account. 
Congo  Free  State  Commission  of  Enquiry  Report— "  Tlie  Congo."     New  "S'nrk, 

1906. 
Dennison,   Maj.   C.   G.— ''  A   Fight  to  a   Finish."      New   York,    IQ04. 

Inchules   a   chapter   on    the   commencement   of   tlie   Transvaal    War   of    i8"?i. 

but    is    mainly    taken    up    with    reminiscences    of    the    Great    I'-m-r    War    of 

i899-K)02. 
Dilke,   C— "  The   BritisJi   lunijire."     London.    1800. 


Si^  BI  HLIlXiU  A  IMI  Y 

l)oylc.   A.  C. — "The  War  in   South  Africa,   Its  Cause  and  Conduct."     London. 

l-lscrton.  H.  E. — "A  Short  History  of  British  C<iIonial   Policy."     London,   i8()7. 
Klhs,   Lt.-Col.   A.   B. — "A    History  of  the  Gold   Coast."     London,    1893. 

rhis    represents   an    important   contribution   to   colonial   history.     'I'he   story 
of  the  Ciold  Coast  is  traced  from  Herodotus's  account  of  the  circumnaviKa- 
tion  of  Africa  to  the  coming  of  the  Portuguese.  Dutch,  l'"rcnch  and  English 
and    the   development    under   their   exploitation. 
Fallot.    1-". — ■■  L'.-lzrnir  Colonial  dr  la   France."     Paris,    1901. 
Fisher.   W.    E.   G. — "The   Transvaal   and  the    Boers;   A   Short   History   of  the 
South    Africa!!    Republic    with    a    Chapter    on    the    Orange    Free    State." 
London,    1900. 
F'itzncr. — "  Dcutschcs   Kolonial-Handbuch."     2d    edition.      Berlin,    1901. 
Fitzpatrick.   T.    P. — "  The   Transvaal    from    Within."      New    York,    189Q. 

As  its  subtitle  indicates,  this  volume  is  a  "  private  record  of  public  affairs." 
Griflin.   A.    P.   C. — "  List  of  Books  with   Rofcrcnces  to   Periodicals   Relating  to 
the    Theory    of    Colonization.    Government    of    Dependencies,    etc."      2d 
edition.      Library   of    Congress.      Washington.    1900. 
This    is    a    valuable    list,    containing    many    titles    of    important    books    and 
periodical   articles   in  all   languages. 
Hensman.  H. — "A  History  of  Rhodesia."    London.  1900. 

Compiled    from    official    sources. 
Hertslct.  Sir  \\. — "The  Map  of  Africa  by  Treaty."     2(1  edition.     London,   1897. 
Hinde,  Sidney  Langford. — "The  Fall  of  the  Congo  Arabs."     New   York,   1.897. 
Hobson.  J.    A. — "The   War  in    South    Africa.    Its   Causes   and   Effects."     New 
York,  1900. 
Part   1   offers  a  detailed  presentation  of  the  Boer  Republics  in   1899.     The 
latter  portion  of  the  volume  is  chiefly  devoted  to  an  analysis  of  economic 
and  political  conditions. 
Hoogt.   C.   W.   van   der. — "The   Story  of   the    Boers.    Narrated   by   Their   Own 
Leaders."     New   York,    1900. 
Prepared  under  the  authority  of  the  South   African   Republic. 
Hooker.  L.  Roy. — "The  Africanders,  a  Century  of  Dutch-English  Feud  in  South 
Africa."      Chicago,    1900. 
A  general  outline. 
Ireland.    A. — "  The    Anglo-Boer    Conflict,    Its    History    and    Causes."      Boston, 
1900. 
A   brief  presentation. 
Ingram.    J.    I'. — "  Natalia."      London.    1897. 

.\    condeu.-ed    history    of    the    exploration    and    colonization    of    Natal    and 
Zululand. 
Johnston,   Sir    Harry    H. — "\    History   of   the   Colonization   of   Africa   by   Alien 
Races."      Cambridge.    1899. 
The  author  of  this  volume   is  himself  a  striking  figure   in   African  explora- 
tion.    As   a   traveler  and   organizer,   as   well   as   historian   of   the   continciU. 
he    has    acmmpli-hed    much.      This    volume    simimarizes    and    reviews    the 
general    history   of   the    attempts    of    A'^ia    and    luiropc   to   colonize    Africa. 
This  book,  while  not  particularly  well   suited   to  the  beginning  of  study  of 
.•\fru.i.   form>  an  admirable   supplement   to  the  present  volume  of   Keltic. 
Jones.    C.    H. — "  .Xfrican    Exploration    from    Herodotus    to    Livingstone."      New 

York,    1875. 
Ki-au".     A.      ii— '■  .\trica."       (Stanf'>r(i'>     "Compendium     of     Gcograpiiy     and 
Travel"  ).     _-   \iy\-.      Loiulun,    ilS'v;. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  3213 

A   general    work   covering   the   geography,    ethnology,   etc.,    of    the    African 
continent. 
Keller,    A.    G. — "  Essays    in    Colonization.      Reprints    from    the    Yale    Review." 
New   Haven,   Conn.,   1902. 
Deals   with  the  German  and   Italian   Colonies,   giving  bibliographies. 
Kingsley.  M.   H. — '"The  Story  of  West  .\frica."     London,   1899. 
Kingston,   W.   H.   G.— "  Great   African   Travellers,   from   :\lungo   Park   to   Stan- 
ley.'"    New   York,   1882. 
A  good  collection  of  lives  of  African   explorers. 
Klose,   H. — ''Togo   unter  deutschcr  Flagc^c."     Berlin,    1899. 
Kruger,   J.    S.    P. — "The   Memoirs   of   Paul   Kruger.   Four   Times    President   of 

the    South    African    Republic.     Told   by    Himself."      New    York.    1902. 
Latimer,  Elizabeth  Worniley. — "  Europe  in  Africa  in  the  Nineteenth  Century." 

Chicago,    1895. 
Lavisse  and  Rambaud. — '"  Histoire  Gencrale."     Paris,    1893- 1901. 
Leroy-BeauHeu,   Paul. — ''  Dc  la  Colonisation   chcc  Ics  I'cuplcs  Modcrncs."     5th 
edition.      2   vols.      Paris,    1902. 
This,  on   the  whole,   is   the  best  general   book   on   colonies. 
Lugard,  Capt.  F.  D. — "The  Rise  of  our  East  African  Empire."    2  vols.    London, 

1893- 

An  account  of  British  East  .*\frica  from  the  beginning  of  British  influence. 

The    maps    are    valuable    and    the    illustrations    excellently    supplement    the 

text.     The  reputation  of  the  author  in  African  matters  is  well  known. 
Masni,   Th. — "  L'Etat    Independent    dii    Congo    a     llix (position     de    Bruxcllcs- 

Tcrvneren  en  1897."     Bruxelles,  1897. 
Meinecke,   G. — ''Die  deutschoi  Kolonien   in    Wort   und   Bild."     Leipzig,    1900. 
Milner,   Sir  Alfred. — "England  in  Egypt."     6th  edition.     London,   ]S()<). 

By   many   considered   the    standard    work   on   the    Egyptian   question.      The 

author  has   bulked   large   in   the   history   of    British   Africa. 
Mullins,   J.    W. — '"The   Wonderful    Story   of   Uganda."     London,    100.4. 
Murray,  R.  W.   (Ed.). — "South  Africa  from  Arab  Domination  to  P.riti^h  Rule." 
London,    1891. 

More   accurately   designated   as   a   history   of   llic    Porlug'ioe    in    Sotuhcast 

Africa.     The   articles   are   by   various   writers,   with   an    iniroductinn    to   liu- 

whole  by   Prof.   A.   H.   Keane.     Good   maps. 
Musgrave,  George  Clarke. — "  In   South   .Xfrica   with   Ikillor."     Bn-tnu.    njoo. 

A  first-hand  record  of  the  South  .-Xfrican  war.     A  bnuk  of  persona!  observa- 
tion  and    experience,    very   vivid   and    readable    in 
North    American    Reviczv. — October,    1  )eccnil)er,     iSo';: 

Interesting   articles   on    the    B^iti^h-Boer    conllin,    e.\hibiii!ig    I'l.th    sidrs    of 

the    controversy. 
Nuova  Autologia.   1897. 

Furnishes    much    of    our     int'ormalinii     reg.'irdin.!. 

Africa. 
Peters.    Dr.    Carl.— "  New    Light    on    D.ark    .\frica."      Translated    by     Dulclicn. 
London,    1891. 

This   is   a   narrative  of  the   German    I'inin    r;i-.h;i    rNpcduii.a, 
Ratzel,    F.— "The    History   of    Mankind."     .^,   v..]-.      .X'w,    N'miI.    iS'j'mS.^^?. 

A  general  ethnography,  with   full  de-rnpii'>n-  of  il.'-    \ii^an   imiivc  tribes. 
Sanderson,    Edgar.--"  .Africa    in    the    .Niuriecnih    C<ri;Mi',  "      .\rw    ^■-Il..    iSoS. 

Treating  Africa  rn  a  "  (h-cuvcry  of  ihc  imicl'i  ntli  ..i!;,;!},"  th;     book  ilral- 

with   the   events    in    every    pari    of    tlie   contnienl   v.  huh    are   coinic'ted    wit!: 

its    new    signiticancf    in     v.orld    poIiMr-. 


)iiuk 

of  pers 

on.a; 

tvie. 

Ian; 

i;ir}.     1 

000. 

e.xhili 

linng    1 

n.th 

the 

Italian 

(  ',- 

Tran 

-^l.ited 

hy 

iVn  HI  HI.  IO(;  H  A  IMI  Y 

Saiissurc.  L.  dc. — "  Ps\\hoh^i:ic  (/<•  hi  Ci^loiiisalioii   l'ran(,oisr  dans  srs  raf ports 
avfc  Irs  jcnV/i'j  ittiiiRcitrs."     Paris.    1800. 

Schmidt.    Rochiis. — "  Pcutsclilouiis    Kolonictt."     2   vols.      lU-rlin.    iS</). 

Sicvrr-i-I  lalin,    W. — "  Afrika.     Line    Allni'incinc    Landcskundc."     Leipzig,     i<>)i. 
Am    cxcdli-iit    inMioral    \st>rk. 

St.«iilcy.    H.    M. — ■■  In    Darkest    Africa."      New    York.    i8<x) 

.\ii   account   of   the   search   fur  aiul   rescue  of   luuin    Paslia. 

"  The  CoiiRo  and  the  J-"oundiiig  of  the  I'ree  State."     London,  1885. 

Stanley,   H.    M.,  and  others. — "Africa;   its   Partition   and   Future."     New   York, 
'i8i>S. 

Steivcns.   C.   W.— "  r.^rypt   in    i8g8."     F.dinhurRh.   iRoH. 

■ '■  With    Kitchener    to    Khartum."      Edinhuryh,    1898. 

Stengel,     K.     Freilierr    von. — "Die    Rcchsvcrhaltnissc    dcr    dcutschcn    Schutz- 
}:t-bit-tc."      Leip;:ijr.     IQOI. 

Tliomson.   H.  C. — "  Rlunlesia  and  its  Government."     London,   189S. 

Tliral.  G.   McCall. — '"  History  of  South  Africa;   History  of  the   Boers  or   Fmi- 
Krant   Farmers."     London,   1888. 

'I'he    Same:      "  1 486-1 6<ji  ;    1601-1795."      London,    i88,S. 

The  Same:     "  Repul)lics  and   Native  Territories.   1854-1872."     London.   l88(). 

Vahiahlc   and   conscientious   works,  based   on   original   documents   preserved 
in    the    Cape    archives,    etc. 

I  iines    (London). — '"The    Tiiiii's    History    of   the    War    in    South    .Africa.    1899- 
IQOJ."     l-"(lited  hy   L.   S.   .Xmery.     2  vols.     London,   1000-190J. 

Traill.    11.    D. — "Lord    Cromer,    a    Biography."      London,    1897. 

Wack.  Henry  W. — "The  Story  of  the  Congo  Free  State.     Social,  Political,  and 
l-A-onomic    .Aspects    of    the    Belgian    System    of    Government    in    Central 
Africa."     New   York   and   London,    1905. 
.\  (ktcuce  <if   King   Leopold.     Considerable  historical   matter. 

Wet.  C.  R.  De. — "  Three  Years'  War."     New  York,  1902. 

Wlme.    .'\.    S. — "The    I-l.xpansion   of   Egypt    under   the    Anglo- l-".gyptian    Condo- 
minium."    London.    1899. 

WiHiduard.    W.    H. — "  .'\    .Short    History   of  the   Expansion   of   the    British    Em- 
pire.   1500- 1870."     Caml)ridge,    i8</7. 
Tlii^  is  one  of  the  very  best  short  treatises  on  the  British  Colonies. 

Zinnncrmann,    A. — "  Die    Kolonialpolilik    Grusshritannicns."      2    vols.       Berlin. 
1898- 1899. 

TRAVEL    AND    DESCRIPTION 

.•\ttcrlniry.    \.    P. — '"  Islani    in    Africa."      New    Yorl;.    iSo<). 

.\'i-tin,    .Major    11.    H. — "Among    .Swamps    and    Giants    in    I'quatorial    .Africa." 

Lr.iulijn,      \<)Q2. 

"  W;ih    .Mac'ii.ii.-iM    in   I'ganda."      London,    u/i^. 

B.ikrr,  Sir  S    W — "  'ihe  .Alljcrt  N'vanza  and  I'l.xploration  of  the   Nile  Sources." 
Nrw    ^^Tk.    1S71. 

I'.ent.    J.    'Jlitod    -"  Tlie    Ruined    Ciii^-s    nf    Mashonaland."      New    ^'o^k.    i8o;v 
.■\   rcri.rd   '.;'  t-xploration^   aiid   e.xcavati'ins   inarle  in    180T   by   the  author  and 
hi-   v.  lie.   v,:i::   ^i<u\v   general   dr-cription   nf  the  country,   inclnding  the   man- 
ner-   .-ck!    ri;-tf«in-    of    the   jiresent    i>enp!i-. 

f'.Iaiki-,    I)r.   W    r;  -   •■  Per-.n:,1   Life  of  Druid    Livingstone."      .\'e\v    N'ork.    1882. 
i  ! '■    -t.-iti'i.-'.rd   hi'  '.^'raidiv.  r'lieily    from    !i;ipMbh-hed   jonni.'iK.   letter-,   etc. 

Cad-lick,    ilc.'tn.— "  .A    White   Woman   in   Central   Africa."      Lond(..n.    1000. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  325 

Callaway,   Bp.   H. — '' Nurserv   Tales,   Traditions   and    Histories  of   Zulns "    Vol 
I.      Natal,    1868. 

A  very  interesting  and  in  many  ways  unique  compilation,  giving  text,  trans- 
lation  and   notes. 

"  Religious  System  of  the  Amazulu."     Natal,   1870. 

Cameron,  V.   L. — "  Across  Africa."     New  York,   1888. 

The  journal  of  a  journey  from  Zanzibar  to   Bcngnela.     Particularly  valu- 
able  as   a   record   of   the   manners   and   customs   of   the   natives   met   with. 

Very   fully    illustrated. 
Churchill,  Lord  Rand.  S. — "  Men,  Mines  and  Animals  in  S.  Africa."'     New  York, 
1892. 

Describes    the    author's    investigations    of   the    gold    mining   prospects,    with 

some  account  of  his  travel  and   sport  in   Mashonaland. 
Decle,  L. — "'  Three  Years  in   Savage  Africa."     London,   1897. 
Edwards,   Amelia   B. — "  A   Thousand    Miles   up   the    Nile."     London,    1891. 
Ellis,  A.  B. — "The  Ewe-speaking   Peoples  of  the  Slave  Coa>t  of  West  Africa." 

London,    1890. 
'■  The  Yoruba-speaking  Peoples  of  the  Slave  Coast  of  West  Africa."     Lon- 
don,   1894. 

Both   important  books   for   ethnology   and   philology. 
Elmslie,  W.   A. — "  Among  the  Wild   Ngoni."     London,   1899. 

On   the   work   of   the   medical   missions. 
Emin   Pasha   (Dr.   Schnitzler). — "Letters  and  Journals."     New  York.   1888. 

This   is  a  translation  of  the   German   edited  work   and   contains   cliietly   his 

correspondence.     The  descriptions  of  his  explorations  in  Central  .\frica  are 

indeed   graphic. 
"Emin    Pasha,    his    Life    and    Work."     Compiled    from    his    Journals    by    G. 

Schwartzcr.     2  vols.     London,    1898. 
Fox-Bourne,    11.    R. — "  Civilisation    in    Congoland.      A    Story    of    International 
Wrongdoing.    With  a  prefatory  note  ])y  Sir  Charles  Dilke."     London,  kx^,?. 

An  attack  on  King  Leopold's  administration. 
Fuller,   F.    W. — "Egypt   and    the    Hinterland."      New    York,    1901. 

A  book  of  reference  on  the  Egypt  of  to-day.     Sympathetic  in  its  discussion 

of   the   difficulties   of   tlie   native    Christians. 
Greswell,    W. — "  Geography    of    Africa    South    of   the    Zambesi." 

Contains   also   notes   on   the    industries,   wealth    and    social   progress   of   the 

states    and    people. 
Hazzledine,  G.   D.— "  The  White  Man  in   Nigeria."     London,    1004. 
Hitchman,  Francis. — "Captain  Sir  Richard  Burton:  His  i'arly,  rnvate  and   I'lili- 
lic  Life."     2  vols.     London,  1887. 

This    contains    an    abridgment    oi    his    travels    and    explor.ilionv. 
Jessett,   Montague  George.— "  The  Key  to   South   Africa:     I  )cl:!.t;o;i    i;.i\."     New- 
York,    jH'/). 

A   short   history   of   tlie   port,    witli    an    account    of   it-    trade,    d.  -cniition    of 

the    natives,    the    country,    etc. 
Johnston,    li.    H.— "  Kilinia   Njaro    b:xpedition."      London.    1885, 

An   accotnit   of   the   scientific   exploration   of   the    l-^a.-tern    JMpi.-itori.il    r<',i:ion. 

Cf)ntains    niaps    and    illustration-. 
"The    River    Congo:     front    it-    mouth    to    i',ol(.I)o."      London.    iSS; 

One    f)f    the    lic-t    account-,    of    tli<-    Con^o    n-gion. 
Keane,  A.   II.— "'ilie  P.oer  States  Land  and   P'-ople."     London,   1000. 
Kingsley,    M.    1 1.—"  Travel-    in    We^t    Afric;i,   Cenigo.    I'riMir.i;-,    (\■v^r.^.   ( •.nncr- 
00ns."      London,     i.'^)7. 


326  «  IBM  ()  (1  U  A  P  H  Y 

• -"  West    African    Studios."      London,    i*/). 

l.ittlc.   W.  J.    Kiiox. — "  Sketches   and    Studies   in    South    Africa."     London   and 
I'hiladclphia.    ity». 
Studies    combining    narrative,    descriptive    and    historical    accmint. 

LiviiiRstonc,    Dr.    P. — "'  ^li^sionary    Travels   and    Researches    in    South    Africa." 
London.    1S57. 
An  out  of  print  book  but  accessible   in  some   libraries.     An   interesting  ac- 
count reflecting  conditions  in  the  years   1S40-1856. 

■■  Narrative  of  an   l"..\pcdition  to  the  Zambesi  and   its  Tributaries.     London, 

1865. 
Also  out  of  print.   Covers  the  years   1858-1864. 

Pupidar  accounts,  covering  both  of  these  periods,  were  published  in  1875 
and   are   more   easily   available. 

"  Last    Journals    in    Central    Africa."      2   vols.      London,    1880. 

Papers   covering   the   years    1865-1873.      lulitcd   by   Rev.    H.    Waller. 

Macdonald.    Rev.   James. — "  Myth   and    Religion."      New    York,    1803. 
The   author   was   for   long  a   missionary   in   African   fields. 

Macdunald.  Rev.  DutT. — "Africana:  or  the  Heart  of  Africa."     2  vols.     London, 
1882. 
A    very    good    and    comprehensive    account    of    the    maimers    and    customs, 
fiilklore.   myths,   etc..   to   l)c   found   in   East   Central   Africa. 

Mathers.  K.   P. — "  Zambesia :  England's  El-Dorado  in  Africa."     London,  i8qi. 

Matthews.    Dr.   J.    \\'. — "  Inwadi    Yami."      London.    iSKS. 

This  is  a  record  of  twenty  years'  personal  experience  in  South  Africa, 
witli  a  good  account  of  the  Kimberley   diamond   nn'ues  and   mining. 

Mockler-l'"erryman,  Major  .A.  ]•". — "  British  \\'e>t  .\frica.  its  Rise  and  Progress." 
j(i  c'lition.  London,  IQOO. 
A  good  general  handbook,  with  emphasis  oti  present  phases,  though  at 
the  same  time  filling  in  many  details  of  Iiistory  omitted  by  earlier  writer< 
Contains  considerable  matter  of  general  description  and  an  interesting 
chapter    on    folklore.      Maps    and    illustrations    good. 

Molyneux,    Maj.-Gen.    W.    C.    V. — '  Campaigning   in    South    Africa  and    Egypt  ' 
New   York,    1806. 
A   personal  record  with   interesting  sidelights  on  history. 

Moore.  J.  E.  S. — "The  Tanganyika  Problem."     London.  1903. 

Morel,  Edmund  D. — '"  King  Leopold's  Rule  in  Africa."     New  York,  1905. 
A    >tudy   of    modern    conditions. 

Nnl)Ie.   1-'.   P. — ''The  Redemption  of  Africa."     2  vols.     New  York,   l8f)9. 
Of    great   value    to    the    student    of    social    conditions. 

P.irtrid'.4i..    C. — "  Cro-s    River    Natives."      London,    1905. 

St     l.('j(r.   Capt.   S.    v.. — "War   Sketches   in    Color."      London,    HX)3. 

.•\  \ol;;me  of  unique  value  and  charm.  It  constitute^  a  collection  of  reminis- 
cence- of  the  Boer  War.  but  combires  the  artist's  portfolio  with  the 
lit'-mrv  note  book.  Tlie  sketches  arc  reproduced  with  i)a'-tcl  exquisitencs> 
of   .v.lor 

Sand'itian.    1".    1\— "  I'ipht     Month-    in    .-m    Ox-Wa,von  "      London.     1880. 

S.  rpa- I'ini'.,   .\.   <], — "Il-.w    I    Cr(j^-«(1    .Africa,    from    the    .XtlaiUic   to   the   Indian 
0..:in.   etc."     Trar.- late]    I,y    .Mfred    I'.iwev      j   vols.      Philadelphia,    1881. 
I'-r-'.::.:!    narrative     >ii    ilie    fainoMs    Portuguese    explorer       Map-,    etc. 

Schw.  ni::-.rtli,    G.— "'JVe    Heart    of    Africa"      London.    1878. 

.A  T'  -(.rd  of  three  y(ar-'  travel  and  np  to  it-  time  one  of  the  best  descrip- 
t;-.  c    accuiuU;    of    th;  •    rrLri'.ii. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Selous,    F.    C— "Travels    and    Adventures    in    South    East    Africa."      London, 
1893. 

Most  excellent  from  every  point  of  view,  reliable  in  its  record  of  observa- 
tions   during   eleven   years    as    pioneer   and    sportsman,    and    marked   by   a 

straightforward,   engaging   style. 
Sibree,   Rev.   James.—"  The   Great   African    Island."     London,    1879. 

Probably    the    most    important   book    on    Madagascar,    with    an    account    of 

the  various   scientific   researches  which  have  opened   up  the   island   to  our 

knowledge. 
"  Madagascar    and    Its    People."      London,    1885. 

Chiefly  on  missionary  prospects  in  that  day. 
Stanley,  H.  M. — "  How  I  Found  Livingstone."    London,  1874. 

Travels,    adventures    and    discoveries. 
"  Thro'   the   Dark    Continent."     London,    1879. 

An  illustrated  description  of  the   Nile  sources,  the  Lake  regions,  and  the 

Congo. 
"  My  Dark  Companions  and  their  Strange  Stories."     London,   1893. 

A  collection  of  camp-fire  tales,  mostly  animal  stories,  arranged  and  edited 

by  the  African   explorer. 
Theal,   G.   McC.—"  Kaffir   Folklore." 

This   is  a  volume  of  translation  by  the  African  historian,  including  some 

introductory  discussion   of  the  mj-thology  and  customs  of  the  people. 
Thomson,  Joseph. — "  To  the  Central  African  Lakes  and  Back."     London.   1888. 

"  Through   Masai    Land."     London,    1887. 

Trollope,    Anthony. — "  South    Africa."      London.    1880. 

A    description    of    Cape    Colony.    Natal,    the    Transvaal,    Griqualand    Wo'^t, 

Orange   Free    State   and    native   territories   in    1877. 
Tyler,  J. — "Forty   Years    in    Zululand."      Boston,    i8gi. 

A    discussion    from    the    missionary's    standpoint. 
Willoughby.    Sir   John    C. — "  Narrative    of    Further    ILxcavations    at    Zimbahjc." 
London,    1893. 

A    continuation    of    Bent's    investigations. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abba   Garima:   battle   of    (1896),   248 
Abbas  Hilmi,  Khedive  of  Egypt :  reign 

of,   273 
Abyssinia:   description  of,  247 
Adda :    sold  to  the  English,  36 
Africa,     History    of:     North     Africa — 
from  the  ancients  to  the  Arabs,  3 ; 
the    Portuguese    in   Africa,    15;    the 
beginning    of    rivalry,    2"] ;    stagtia- 
tion    and    slavery,    35 ;    the    position 
in   1815,  42;  sixty  years  of  prepara- 
tion,  47 ;    preliminaries   to   partition, 
58;    England,    France,    and    Portu- 
gal  in   Africa,   71  ;    Germany   enters 
the     field,     86;      Germany     in     the 
Cameroons  and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
105 ;   the  Berlin  Conference  and  the 
Congo     Free     State,     114;     German 
East   Africa,    127,    the   struggle   for 
the    Niger,    147 ;    German    progress 
in   West    Africa,    172;    British    East 
Africa.    182;   the   Italian   sphere  and 
the     islands,    207;     British    Central 
and  South  Africa,  214;  Africa  since 
1895,    245 ;    the    economic    value    of 
Africa,    286 
African    Company   of   Merchants:    char- 
tered,   Zl 
African  Exploration  Fund  of  the  Royal 
Geographical     Society :      established, 
62 
African   Lakes    Company:    formed,   235 
African     Lakes     Corporation:      formed, 

235 
African     Trans-Continental      Company: 

formed,  229 
Ahmadu :      sketch     of.     148;     concludes 

treaty    witli    the    [''rcnch,    149 
Ahmed    Arahi :     rebellion    of.    267 
Ail:    purchased  by  a  l^'renchman,  56 


Albert    Nyanza :     discovered,   54 
Alcohol :     agitation   against  the   sale   of, 

in  Africa,  254 
Alexander  the  Great,  King  of  Macedon : 

conquers   Egypt,  9 
Alexandria:     bombardment    of    (1882), 

267 
Algeria:    conquered  by  France,  47;  un- 
der  French   rule,   262 
Algeciras    Conference,   The    (1905),   246 
Ali   Bey :    promotes   rebellion   in  Africa 

against  Portugal,  39 
Amirantes,   The :     sketch   of,   213 
Amru  Ibn  al  Aasse :    invades  Egypt,  1 1 
Anderson,     Karl     Johan :      explorations 

of,    52        _ 
Andrade,  Pavia  d' :    his  work  in  Africa, 

225 
Anglo-Belgian    Agreement    (1894).    202 
Anglo-French       Agreements:        (  188S), 

209;    (1889),   150;    (1890),  163,  212; 

(1904),  246 
Anglo-Gtrman      Agreements:       (i88fi), 

182;    (1888),    163;    (1890),   165,   i'>6, 

173,    177,    181,    188;    (1S93),    i(>6 
Anglo-German    Company:     formed,    176 
Anglo-Italian        Agreement :         ( 1891 ) , 

209 
Anglo-Portuguese    Agreements:    (i<S9u). 

230;    (1891),   231,    241 
Angola:     present   condition   of.   240 
Angra   Pequena  :    claimed  Iiy  t!ie   Dutcii. 

38;    annexed   to   Gfrmany.    104 
Anhaya.    Pedro    de :     his    caniiJai^ns    in 

Africa.    2\ 
Annobon :     sketch    of.    213 
Ar:ibs:      their    intluence    in    Aini'.i.    58; 

uprising  of.    121 
Archinard,    Colonel:     his    c;impaiKns    in 

Africa,    151 
Ascension     Isl;in(l :      occupied    by     ( .rc.it 

Britain,   213 


331 


M)i  r  N  D  K  X 

\>li.iiui:    .iinu-\ii!   liy   I'liiil.nui.    150  Kisinarck,    Coiiiil    lli-rlicrt:    his   iie^jolia- 
\-Niiiif:     ilaimoil    by    l*"raiu\'.   .|<)  tioiis  witli    l'".n.tjlaiul,  <)S;   his  mission 

\tbara  :    l)ittli'  of   (lS(K>t,  -'7^  to  London,   i(\? 

A.rori>:     sketch  of,   Jij  nisiuaroksl)inK :   foiunkd.    180 

RIatityii' :    (Kscription    of.    242 
Hot-rs :  Iiistory  of,  275 

B  Holts,  William :  his  expedition  to  Africa, 

40 

i?ananioyo :     Rrowtli    of,    14.^  lujinhay,   .\frica:    founded.  51 

n.iikic.    W'ilhani    iialfour:     explorations  Bonnier,    Colonel:     occupies    Timbuktu, 

of.     50  15  J 

Baincs,     llunnas:     explorations   of,   52  Hounie,     11.     K.     I'ox :     brings     charges 
haktr.  Sir  S.uniiel   White:    explorations  against  the  administration  in  Congo 

of,    54;    arouses    an    interest    in    Af-  I'ree  State,  254 

nea.   50  Bourbon,  Island  of:  see  Reunion 

Bambarras :    sketch  of.   148  llourd:     his     administration     of     Tunis 
Haiiiidiii.     Count :     founds     the     Society  affairs,  262 

for  (uTiiKui   Colonisation.   121)  Ihandenburg  African  Conipanj  :  foimdcd 
r..iratier:.   (leneral:     in    .\hyssinia,   24Q  31 

Marreto.    iranci-eo:    explorations   of,   2,^  Hraz/.a,    Coiuit     Pierre    Savcrgiian    de: 
r.artli.     Ileinricii:       explorations    of,    50,  establishes   bVeneh   influence  in  Cen- 

147  tral  Africa,  50;  sketch  of,  71 

r.a-tl    .Missionary  Society:   work  of,  Q2  ]?ra/.zaville :     founded,  72 

Basutolanii :    annexed   by    Creal    I'ritain,  British    Bechuanaland :      organized    as    a 

51.  <Si.  2i()  crown    colony,   82.   215 

Bateteia   Mnliny,  The   (1897),  254  British      Central      Africa:        sketch      of, 
r.ayiil.    ilr;    eoiulndes    treaty    with    the  214 

Alnianiy    of    b'uta    Jallon,    150  British    luist   Africa:    sketch   of,    182 

i'.e!^i,.n   K.alanga  Company:   formed,  240  Briti.sh   ICast  Africa  Conii)any.   Im])eria!  : 
lull,  Khil;  :  nf;..,r.)tiates  for  IjirniJian  pro-  founded,      132;      leases     land,      130; 

lection.    Ill  chartered.   183 

l'.in\o\-ki.    Count    .Mauric    August:    at-  British   South  Africa:   sketch  of,  214 

tiinpts  I,,  csi.iblish  French  intlueiice  British    South    Africa    Company:    work 

III    .M::'la.L;a>ear,    212  of,  228 

B.erlier.i :    In  Id   by    F.ngland,  85  Brue:    his    exploratior.s    in    Africa,    32 

I'erkeley,    J->neM  :    beconus    administra-  Brussels    C<.)nferencc,   The    (1876),   62 

t'  r  of   Briti-h    I'.a-t   Africa,   204  Biichner,    Max:     explorations    of,    90 

B' riin   CM;.terei:(e,  Tlie    (1884-18^^5),  78.  Buhiwayo :  growth  of,  233 

114  Burton,    .Sir    Richard    bVancis:    arouses 
I'.;!!;- r.     Lo-iis     (insfave;     his     work     in  an   interest  in  Africa,  59 

Afri  a.    150  Bnshiri:    leads    insurrection,    140;    death 
l'.:-in;;rek   (  Bi-marck-ScIionhausen),  Otto  of,  141 

l.'liiard    Leopold,    i'rince    von:      hi> 

'■-':nK:ie    of    l'ortnt:al    as    a   colonial 

P''.\'r.    jS ;     int1>u:uTd    by     (iermaii  C 

Airir;i:;    'rader-.    70;    rules    Ccrman 

e;iipir.  .    .'^"7 ;    def  rinir.es    to    create    a  Cabinda :       jjiundered       and       destroyed 

'     loui;.!    i-iii!)ire.   93;    iHL;(jtiates   with  (ijj;^),   .3') 

'iie    Briti-h    j-i  reign    ( )t'liee,  95,    103:  Cabot.   Sebastian:   explorations  of,   19 

'    ■    i  rain '. -Africin    poliey.    no;    his  Caiiiie,    Rene:    explorations   of,   42,   47 

:i::;  .'!'■  ;;i  n -an!  to  the  Camerooiis,  Cam,    iJiogo:    explorations   of,    18 

''-'■    !  •-    -<  lii-nies    fvr    La-t    Africa,  Cambrm,    Jules:     his    administration    of 

'ji  Tunib   allairs.   262 


INDEX 


33-9 


Cameron,   Verney   Lovett :    his   explora- 
tion  of   Africa,  59 
Cameroon?,  The:  annexed  by  Germany. 

113;    made    a    crown    colony,    177; 

condition  of,   170 
Canary  Islands:  sketch  of.  213;  present 

government  of.  248 
Cannibalism :   in  the  Congo  Free  State, 

252 
Cape  Blanco:   ronnded,   17 
Cape   Bojador;    rounded,    17 
Cape   Colony:   captured   by   the   English, 

38:  growth  of,  51 
Cape  of  Good  Hope:  discovered,   18 
Cape  to  Cairo  Railroad :  plans  for,  230 
Cape  Verde :  doubled,   17 
Cape    Verde    Islands:    sketch    of.    213 
Caron,  Lieutenant:  navigates  the   Niger. 

149 
Catharine  of  Braganza :  marries  Charles 

II  of  England,  34 
Cawston.  George :   sketch  of,   222 
Central    Search    Association :    organized. 

224 
Ceuta :    siege   of    (1415).    15 
Charles    II,    King   of   England:    charters 

African      Company,      31  ;       marries 

Catharine  of  Braganza.  34 
Chartered  Company :   sketch  of.  22^ 
Churchill,    Lord    Randolph :      his    report 

concerning   i\la>honaian(l,   229 
Cintra,  Pedro  de :  explorations  of.  17 
Clarkson,    Thomas:    iiis    efforts    for   the 

abolition   of  slave-trade.   40 
Colquhoun.  Archibald  R.  :  sketch  of.  231 
Coffee   Industry:   in   Africa,   144 
Comoros:   sketch  of,  213 
Congo  Free  State:  created.   116;  exports 

of.    124;    revenues    and    expeuditures 

of,   125:  present  status  of,  250 
Congo     Railway     Company:      roiuplctt;-- 

il>  line,   126 
Congo  'i'rc.-ity    (  i.'nS4),   7(1 
Copper:  in  (ieriu;ni   \Ve-^t    Ainca,    175 
Covilliani.     l*e(Iro    de :     cxiiloratii  .u-,    ol, 

iS 
Crani[M-l.    I'aul:    tiis    African    cxp.-dil  i'l::, 

Croft.    JauK'<    Alexander:    lii      vvrl:    in 

Africa,    153 
Cuiilia,    '^ri^t;tn    da:    hi:,    i;;iu,p;ii;j,ii .    iu 

Africa,  21 
Cyrcnc  :   friuiided,  7 


D,  E 

Dahomans :   resist  the  French.   163 
Dar-es-Salaam :    growth   of,    143 
Darfur:  annexed  to  Egypt,  56 
De   Sousa :   sketch  of,  226 
Decken,   Karl   Klaus   von   der :   explora- 
tions of.  54 
Delagoa   Bay :   present  status  of,  250 
Dhanis  Mutiny,  'i"he   (1897),  254 
Dias,   Dinis:   explorations  of.    17 
Diaz.   Bartholomew:   explorations  of,   18 
Diaz,  Diego:  discovers  Madaga.-car.  21 1 
Dieppe:    importance    of,    in    tiie    Middle 

Ages,   15 
Dilke,      Sir      Charles :      brings     charges 

against  the  administration  in  Congo 

Free  State.  254 
Dogali :   Abyssinians   attack   Italian   gar- 

ri^on  at.  207 
I'^aimes,   Gil:    exiilorations  of.    i" 
East       Africa       Plantation       Company: 

formed.    139 
Egypt:  sketch  of  her  history.  2(x) 
Elizabeth,    Queen   of    I'.nglaud :    charters 

African  Ci  mipauy,  30 
I'~!-llaj   Omar:   al   war  willi   the    l-"reuch. 

48 
h'l    Mina    (St.   Jorge   d:i   Min;i)  :    found- 
ed,   18:    captured    by   tl'e    DiUcli,    t,() 
luuin   Pash;'. :  l)e1eagnered  by  tlie   Maiidi. 

138;   enters  the  service  of  Gerui;iuy. 

143;     the     (ierman     expedition     for 

relief  of.   i8() 
Engl;uid  :   in  Africa.  71:  pre■^ent   African 

possessious    of.    _'(if) 
Eritrea:    present   condition   of.   249 


l\il)ri,      I'riedrich :      inllueiice        Cierm.in 

eoloni/.'tion    rtVort-,   'd 
i'ern.tudo    I'm:    s],,  te!i   of.    .•  1  ; 
I'ingo:   >m!,1    in  111-,-    i:ii;,di'.li,   ,:'. 
I'Titter-:   ailcni])!  .  to   --irv-N    .in     \ir:c;in 

r;!ilrM:id,  .v, 
b!(!;el.    kolie:  I  :    cxpi"!  .iti'  111     '  U,   o<i ;    hi^ 

nil-   i"ii    ri     \iric;i.    1;;,; 
1  .in     1  ).inplini       -k'-tJi    Ml.    .•!  ; 
Iw.rt     .'>,iii   111:1 ;.  :    budt.    .'j^^ 
|'r:ince :    m     \f:i'  .1.    71  ;    pie     ■<■     Nfric.iii 

I<M      ■        1-1:  ■!,     .■■■■\ 


384 


INDEX 


Krancevillc :    founded.   72 
rranco-Cicrnian  Coincntion   (1894),  166, 

Franco- Portuguese    ARrccnicnt     (.1886), 

17  ^ 

l-'ranoo-Spanish    ARrccmcnt    (1901).    168 
Frederick   William    1.  the  Circat   l^lector 

of     Hrandenlnirg:     fosters     African 

trade.  .^I 
Trere.  Sir  Bartle:  his  mission  to  Africa. 

55 ;  liis  influence  on  African  affairs, 

'»5 
IVey.  Colonel :  at  war  with  Samory.  149 
Fronde.  James  Anthony:  his  mission  to 

Africa.  8.? 
F'ulah :    description   of,    148 


Gallicni.  Joseph  Simon:  his  expedition 
through  Africa.  149;  crushes  insur- 
rection  in    Madagascar.   213 

(ialton.   l-rancis:  explorations  of.  52 

Gama.   Vasco  da :   explorations  of.    18 

Gamhetta.  Leon  :  his  influence  on  Afri- 
can  atTairs,    154 

Gedgc :  his  explorations  in  Africa,  188 

German  African  Company:  work  of. 
89 

German  Ami-Sla\cry  Society:  places  a 
steamer  on   Lake   Xyasa,   142 

German  Colonial  Society:  formed.  90; 
iniilcs  with  the  German  Coloniza- 
tion  Society.    138;    incorporated,   174 

German  Colonization.  Society  for: 
founded,   129 

German    I'.a^t   Africa:   sketch  of,    127 

German  I'.a>l  Africa  Company:  found- 
ed, 130;  incorporated  hy  imperial 
charter,  13S;  huys  tlic  coa>t  rights 
of   the    .-ilian    oi    Zanzibar.    142 

German  J'.a-t  Africa  Society:  experi- 
ment<  with  tea,  coffee,  and  otlier 
ci:Iture-.    144 

(ierm.-'.n  Planter^'  Company:  formed, 
130 

G'-rm.-ri  Pl;uM;;tion  Company:  work  of, 
'7'' 

f'lcrnirin  SoK-il.wc-t  African  Company; 
o'aa:!;^   huid.    ir/, 

Gcrn-.:i;i    'l'',:-',];i\v\    Conii)aiiy  :    4;clch    of, 


German  West  .\frica :  sketch  of.  172 

Germany:  enters  the  .Xfrican  field,  86; 
in  the  Cameroons  and  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  105;  present  African  pos- 
sessions   of.    257 

Gessi  Pasha :  defeats  the  forces  of 
Suleiman    (1879).   167 

Ciuinea,  F'rench :   Germans  settle  in,   107 

Gold  Fields  of  South  .Africa  CompaJiy: 
obtains   rights    in    Matabeleland,   223 

Goldie.  Sir  George  Tauhman :  checks 
F'rench  plans  for  Africa,  152;  influ- 
ence of.  154:  made  vice-governor  of 
the  Royal  Niger  Company,  156 

Gonsalvez.     Antonio:     explorations     of, 

'7 

Gordon.  Charles  George:  his  mission 
to   the   Sudan,   271 

Gosheidand  :   founded.  214 

Graaf  Reinet :  magistracy  established  at, 
.37 

Grand  Bassam  :  claimed  by  France,  49 

(irant,  James  Augustus :  arouses  an  in- 
terest  in   Africa.  59 

Griqualand  West :  annexed  by  Great 
Britain.   80,    216 

Granville,  George  Leveson-Gowcr,  F.arl 
of :  negotiates  the  Congo  Treaty.  75 

Gungunyana,  King  of  Gazaland :  sends 
envoys  to  England,  232 


H,  I,  J 

Haggard.     Henry     Rider:     visits     East 

Africa.    133 
Hanno:    his  colonizing  expedition   along 

the  coast  of  Africa.  6 
Hawkins.     .Sir    John:     his     voyages     to 

Africa,   29 
HecatcX'us  of  Miletus:   makes  a  map  of 

the   world.  8 
Heligoland:   ceded   to  Germany.   145 
Hendrik    Witlhoi :    resists   Germans,    173 
Henry  the  Navigator.  Prince:  career  of, 

'  5 
Herodotus:   visits   Africa,  8 
Hewelt,   Consul:    his   mission   to   Africa, 

lOfJ 

Hicks  Pa-lia :  his  campaign  against  the 
Mahdi.   271 

llomem.  Va^-co  I'ernandez :  explora- 
tions lit  23 


INDEX 


335 


Imperial  British  East  Africa  Company: 
see  British  East  Africa  Company, 
Imperial 

International  African  Association : 
founded,    62 

Ismail,  Khedive  of  Egypt :  rc"^'n  of,  267 

Italy:  in"  Africa,  207;  present  African 
possessions   of,  249 

Jackson :  his  explorations  in  Africa,  188 

Jameson,  Lcander  S. :  appointed  admin- 
istrator for  British  South  African 
Company,  231 ;  effect  of  his  raid, 
281 

John,  King  of  Abyssinia:  at  war  with 
the    Italian   garrisons,   207 

John  II,  King  of  Portugal :  given  title 
of  Lord  of  Guinea,   18 

Johnston.  Alexander  Keith  (1844- 
1879)  :  his  work  in  the  Lake  Nyasa 
region,  238 

Johnston,  H.  H. :  obtains  land  at  Mount 
Kilimanjaro,  132,   134 

Johnston,  Sir  Harry  H  :  quoted  on  Cer- 
man  administration  in  Africa,  261 

Joseph  Frederick :  concludes  treaty  with 
Lijderitz,  99 

Jiihlke:   his  expedition   to   Africa,    130 

Jung,  Emil :  influences  German  coloniza- 
tion efforts,  91 


K 


Kaffraria:   annexed  to  Cape  Colony,  51 

Kairwan :   founded,   11 

Kakoma:   founded,  90 

Kamaherero :  accepts  Gt^rman  protec- 
tion,  173 

Kanem :  tributary  to  Wadai.   165 

Karcma :    founded,  63 

Kassala :  captured  by  tlie  llali.in-; 
(1894),  208;   restored  to  Egypt,  24S 

Kerckhovcn,  Van  der :  his  dcaliuKs  v,  itli 
tlic   Arriljs.    121 

Kcrsten,   Ottn:   cxplorati'ius  of,  54 

Khalifa,  Stiltrm  :  leases  laud  to  tlio  Ger- 
mans, 130;  concludes  treat ic-^  with 
the  Englisli,    185 

Khama:  conchule-,  a  treaty  witli  the 
British,  82 

Kilwa:   founded.   13 

Kimbrrlcy :    di.-covcry    of    cliamonds    at, 

275 


Kirk,  Sir  John  :  his  work  in  Africa.  55 ; 
his  influence  in  Africa,  84 ;  sketch 
of,  131 ;  resignation  of,  136 

Kitchener,  Sir  Herbert:  his  campaign  in 
the  Sudan,  266,  272 

Kordofan:    annexed   to   Egj-pt.   56 

Krapf,  Johann  Ludwig:  arouses  an  in- 
terest  in    Africa,   59 

Kriiger.  Stephanus  Johannes  Paul :  bis 
conferences  with  Sir  Alfred  Mihier, 
280;  death  of,  283 

Kund,  Lieutenant:  his  campaigns  in 
Africa,    178 


Lagos:  acquired  by  England,  49;  Ger- 
man factory  established  at,  92 

Laird,  Macgregor :  leads  African  move- 
ment,   153 

Lake   Nyasa  Region  :  description  of,  235 

Lauder,   John :   explorations   of.   50 

Langenburg.  Prince  Hohenlohe :  founds 
the  German   Colonial   Society.   129 

Leopold  II,  King  of  the  Belgians:  plans 
exploration  and  civilization  fif 
Africa.  60;  made  ruler  of  Congo 
Free  State,  117;  wills  his  Africin 
possessions  to  Belgium,  250 

Leopoldville :    founded,  69 

Liberi.'i :  resources  of,  162;  description 
of,   247 

Linant   Paslia :    sketch  of,  2(x) 

Livingstone.  l);i\id:  exploration-,  of. 
52;  effect  (jf  his  work  in  Afrie.i, 
215.    235 

Living-^tone  Ceiur.il  Africa  Conii)any : 
formed.    235 

I.ivonius,  Viee-Adniiral :  ur.L;es  .'uuiexa- 
tion    of    Z,'nizil);ir.    1.27 

I.ol)enguI,'i  :  refn-e-  to  eoiiclnde  tri.ily 
witli  'l"r.iiis\  :(;il.  217;  ;il  \\;ir  with 
tlie    P.riti-b,  J,^,^ 

Lok,  John:   lii^   voy;ige^  to   Afric.i.  28 

Lokoja :   founded,  .so 

l.Miidon  .\1  i^'-ionary  Soi-lt't\  :  work  of. 
01.    -•12 

[.uderit/  :   -keteh  nf.  ij; 

Lugard,  !•'.  D. :  In-  mi— i"ii  in  Afru.i. 
170;  i;it,  r,  tin-  srivire  i.f  ilie  I'rili  li 
i'.a-t  Africa  C''>iiip.in\ ,  102:  his 
service     ag.iiii-t    tin-    Aiil»-.    2,;8 


dS6 


INDEX 


M 


Macdonald,  Captain :  surveys  for  an 
African   railway,    IQO 

Mackcn/if,  George  S. :  his  work  in 
Africa,    185 

Mackcnrio.  John:  appointed  Deputy 
CoTuniissioner  to  Bccljuanaland,  214 

Mackinnon.  Sir  WiUiam:  his  neROtia- 
tions  with  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar, 
84;  leads  movement  for  relief  of 
Mmin  I'asha,  i.^;  president  of  the 
British  East  Africa  Association, 
i8j:  his  work  in  British  East 
Africa,   205 

MncMalion,  Comtc  Marie  Edmc  Patrice 
Maurice  dc.  Due  de  Magenta, 
rresident  of  the  I'Vcnch  Republic : 
arbitrates  luiglish  and  Portuguese 
claims  in  Africa.  5_» 

M"Qucen :  urges  British  government  to 
establish  claims  in  the  Niger  region, 
SO 

M'tc-a;  his  interviews  with  Stanley,  60; 
resists   the   French,   160 

Maba<:    sketch   of.    164 

Madagascar:  French  attempt  to  gain  a 
footing  in,  56:  sketch  of,  211 

Madeira:    sketch   of.   213 

Magdoshu:    founded,    13 

Mahdi.   The:    sketch  of,   271 

Mahinkis:   sketch   of.   148 

MaTidingoes:    sketch  of,    148 

Maria  Theresa.  Holy  Roman  Empress: 
attempts  to  acquire  African  posscs- 
^ion<,  40 

Martin  V.  Pope:  confer.-,  grant  of  Afri- 
crui    territory    on    Portugal.    17 

.Ma>iionaland :  description  of.  227;  up- 
rising in    (  }^/t),  243 

Matabelc:    rfbclli<in    of,    243 

M:itabeleland :    sketch    of,    216,    227 

Mathcws.  Cjcneral  :  in  the  service  of 
th.e   -•■It.iii  (.f  Zanzibar,   132 

Maund.  I"..  R.  :  influences  Lobengula, 
222 

Ma:'ritiu-  :    -kctrh  of.  213 

M;i>'.;te:  t;ikeii  by  the  Frencii,  56; 
-r.i-t.h   of,   213 

Mil!'..    Duarte   de :   founds   Mo/ambique, 

M(:.(Vk  I.  Kiiii,'  <■'(  .\by  -iiiia  :  hi-  rc- 
i-iti"ii~    with    !til>-.    _'f»S 


Menelek  II,   King  of  Abys.sinia :   ability 

of.    247 
Milner,  Sir  Alfred:  his  negotiations  with 

President  Kniger,  280 
Misa-Hoehe:    founded,    180 
Mizon.   Lieutenant:   his  African  expedi- 
tion, 161 
Moffat.    Robert :    effect   of   his   work    in 

.\frica,   215 
Moffat,  J.  Smith:  his  mission  to  Mata- 

beleland,   21Q 
Mohanuned     Ali,     Khedive     of     Egypt: 

reign  of,  267 
Mombasa :    improved   by    h'nglish,    1S6 
Monomotapa,  Treaty  of   (1630),  24 
Monteil,     Colonel :      his     campaign      in 

Africa,   151 
Moore:  visits  King  Bell,  in 
Morgcn:    his   expedition   in    Africa,    178 
Morocco:   French  claims  in,  246 
Mozambique:     founded,     21;     siege     of 

(Trx)8),   39 
Mozambique  Company:  sketch  of,  226 
Mwanga:    sketch    of,    187 


N,   O 

Nachtigal,  Gustav :  arouses  an  interest 
in  Africa,  59;  made  consid-general 
of   Africa,    103 

National    African    Company :    organized, 

154 
New  Republic:  founded,  216 
Niger.   The:    struggle    for,    147 
Nigeria:    formed,    156 
Nimeguen,   Treaty   of    (1678-1679),  ^^i 
Nioro:  captured  by  the   French    (1891), 

151 

North   Africa:   sketch  of.  3 

North      German      Missionary      Society: 

work  of,  92 
Nos'-i-Be:     taken    by    the    French,    56; 

■-ketch    of,    212 
No';si-Cuuib;i :    sketch    of.    212 
Nossi-Mitsiou  :    sketch    of.    212 
Nubar   Pasha :   sketch  of,  2C18 
Obbia :    placed    uiuier    the    protection   of 

Italy.  20Q 
()I)ock:  bf)ught  by  the  French,  56 
Oil    River.>    Region :    declared    a    British 

protectorate,     155:     government    of. 

>5'> 


INDEX 


337 


Omdurman :  battle  of  (1896),  272 
Orange  Free  State:  founded,  51 
Orange   River   Colony :   organized.   283 
Othman :  eflfect  of  his  death,  147 
Otyimbingiie :     purchased     by     German 

missionaries,  94 
Owen,    Captain :    obtains    territory    for 

England  in  Africa,  51 


P.  Q 

Park,  Mungo:  explorations  of,  42 
Peters,  Karl :   leader   in  the   Society  for 
German    Colonization,    129;    sketch 
of,    129;    his    expedition    to    Africa, 
130;  his  expedition  for  the  relief  of 
Emin    Pasha,    186 
Pfeil,    Count   Joachim:    desires    increase 
of  German  influence  in  Africa.  128; 
leader    in    the    Society    for    German 
Colonization,   129;   his  expedition  to 
Africa,   130 
Phffinicians:   circumnavigate   Africa.  5 
Pinto.    Serpa :    his   mission   to   the   Lake 

Nyasa   region,   238 
Pogge,  Paul :  explorations  of,  90 
Portal,     Sir     Gerald :      his     mission     to 

Uganda,  196 
Porto   Novo :   claimed  by   France.  49 
Portugal:   in   Africa,   15.  71;   her  claims 
in  the  Lake  Nyasa  region,  236;  pres- 
ent  possessions   in    Africa,   249 
Possession     Islands:     claimed     by     the 

Dutch,   38 
Principe:    sketch  (A,  213 
Ptokmy  (ca.  140  A.  D.)  ;  sketch  of,  9 
Puttkamer,     Robert     Victor     von :      his 

mission  to  the   Niger,   157 
Quetta:   sold   to   the   English,  36 


R 


Rabah :   conquests   of,    167 

Rebmann :    explorations   of.   53;    arouses 

an    interest   in   Africa,   59 
Reunion     (Island    of    I'ourbon)  :    sketch 

of,  -;i.^ 
Rhenish    Mission:   work   of  94 
Rhodes,    Cecil    J.:    refuses   to    recognize 

Boer   claims   in    Bechuanaland.   214; 

sketch  of,  222;  attempts  to  create  .1 


British    protective    tariff    in    Somli 
Africa,    233;    crushes    iMatabele    re- 
bellion, 243;   death  of  283 
Rhodesia :  development  of,  243 
Robinson,  Sir  Hercules:  his  mission  to 
Bechuanaland,  86;  governor  of  Cape 
Colony,    95 ;    concludes    treaty    with 
Lobengula,  219 
Rodriguez :  sketch  of,  213 
Rohlfs,    Gerhard:     desires    increase    of 
German    influence    in     Africa.     128; 
appointed    consul-general    of    Zanzi- 
bar,  128 
Rosebery.   Earl :  his   African  policy.    198 
Royal  African  Company:  work  of.  31 
Royal   Geographical    Society:    establishes 

an  African  ICxploration  luuid.  62 
Royal  Niger  Company:  organized,  156 


.Sahara,  The:  value  of,  168 

St.    Helena:   sketch   of.  213 

St.  Jorge  da  Mina:  sec  I'.l  Mina 

St.  Lucia  Bay :  annexed  to  Cape  Colony. 

106 
St.   Paul  de  Loanda :   founded.  21 
Sainte  Marie :  reoccupied  by  the  l'"rench, 

56,  212 
Salisbury.    Robert    .'Xrlhur    TailxU    Ga-- 

coyiif   Cecil,   Marquis   of:    .igrees    to 

make     no    annexations    that     would 

interfere    with    the    German    spliere, 

1.38 
Samory    (Saniadu)  :    sketch    of,    148;    ;il 

war  with  the   I'reucli,   149;  cajjtured 

by   tlie    I'Vench,    151 
San  .Salvador:  growth  of.  20 
San   'I'lionie :    sketcli   of,   213 
Scherinij;,    Capt.iin :    aiuiexes    Angra    I'r 

•  luefia  to  (ierinany,   104 
Scliux-iut'urth.     Georg     August:     arou>c< 

:in  interest   in  Afric.i.  50 
.Segr):    captnre<l    by    tlie    hVeiicli    (iS<>o), 

.Seious,    I'Yederick :    his    work    in    .Smuh 

Africa.    2j8 
Sefl)en   .Sultan:   hi>  c;nnpai!;n   in    Africa, 

V) 
.Senuf^:    sketch    of,    148 
Seychelles,    I  lie :     .ketch   of.    .'13 


SS8 


INDEX 


Sry'iil  Burghasb.  Sultan  of  Zanzibar: 
his    negotiations    witli    the    Britisli. 

Scy'ul  Majiil,  Imaun:  contirnicd  in  his 
p^>ssc^^ioIls.    5j 

Scyid   Said,   linaini:  sketch  of,  53 

Sharp,  Granville :  secures  slave  decision, 
40 

Sierra  Leone:  English  attempt  to  colon- 
ize. .?7 

Sil\eira.  Gonsalvo  da:  explorations  of. 
-.> 

Siinha,  Sultan  :  his  relations  with  Euro- 
peans. 133 

Slatin  lU-y:  defeat  of,  271 

Slavery  and  Slave-Trade :  main  treat- 
ment. 35;  sketch  of.  38;  domestic 
slavery  in  Africa,  185;  abolished 
in  the  Witu  country,  200;  in  the 
Lake  Nyasa  region,  238;  in  the 
Congo  I'ree  State,  252;  present  con- 
dition of.  310 

Smith,  C.  Euan :  British  consul-general 
in  Africa,  140;  recommends  ex- 
pedition  to   Uganda,    IQI 

Soden.  Baron  von :  governor  of  the 
Cameroons.  179 

Sokotra.  Island  of:  annexed  by  Eng- 
land. 85 

Solomon,  King  of  Israel:  equips  fleets 
for  commercial  voyages,  6 

Somaliland :  under  British  protection, 
209 

Spain :  present  African  possessions  fif, 
247 

Spcke :  arouses  an  interest  in  Africa,  59 

Stanley.  Henry  Morton:  explorations 
of,  52;  influence  of  his  explorations. 
59:  goo  to  the  relief  of  Emin 
Pa-lia.  138;  his  faith  in  the  Cape 
to    Cair(j    Railroad,    230 

Stcll.-'IaiKl :  founded.  214 

Stettin,    von:    his    expedition    in    Africa. 

178 

Stewart.  James:  ronstnicts  a  railroad  in 
Africa,  83;  establishes  industrial 
-chool   in   Africa.  203 

Stravich:  secretary  of  the  African  As- 
sociation, 65 

Si:(lan :   hi-tory   of.  271 

Suez  Canal :  opened.  56 

S-.Irinian:  his  forces  defeated  (1879), 
"'7 


Swinburne.  Sir  John :  spreads  British 
influence  in  Africa,  83;  forms  min- 
ing company,  217 

Swellendam :  magistracy  established  at, 
37 

T,  U 

Tanganyika:  discovered,  53 

Tangier:  under  English  rule,  34 

Tel-el-Kcbir:   battle  of    (1882),  267 

Thomson,  Joseph:  his  work  in  Africa, 
155.  239 

Timbuktu:  description  of,  149;  occupied 
by  the  Ercnch,  152 

Togoland :  made  a  German  protectorate, 
III ;  condition  of,   179 

Tonga  Treaty   (1887),  81 

Towrson,  William :  his  voyages  to 
Africa,  29 

Transvaal:  founded,  51;  under  British 
occupation  (1877-1881),  214;  an- 
nexed by  England,  279 

Transvaal  Colony:  organized,  283 

Trans-Saharan  Railway :  schemes  for, 
168;   building  of,  265 

Tripoli :  Italian  claims  in,  249 

Tristam,    Nuno:    explorations   of,    17 

Tristan  D'Acunha:  occupied  by  Great 
Britain,  213 

Tropenkoller  (Tropic-madness)  :  de- 
scription of,  259 

Tuaregs :  resist  the  Erench,  152 

Tuckey:  explorations  of,  47 

Tunis:  annexed  by  France,  80;  Italian 
claims  in,  249;  under  French  rule, 
262 

L'ganda  :  English  attempt  to  gain  a  foot- 
hold in,  190;  made  over  in  perpe- 
tuity  to    British    protection,    195 

L^nited  African  Company:  formed,  78; 
assumes  all  the  British  interests  on 
the  Niger  River,  154 

L^nited  Concessions  Company:  organ- 
ized, 224 

L'pingtonia :  attempts  to  establish,  173 

V,   W 

Victoria:  founded,  50;  placed  under 
British  protection,  in;  ceded  to 
Germany.  177;  battle  of   CiXf^3).  233 

Victoria  Nyanza :  discovered,  53 


INDEX 


339 


Vohsen :      German     consul-general      in 

Africa,   140 
Wadai:   description  of,    164;   recognized 

as  within  the  French  sphere  of  in- 
fluence,  167 
Walfish  Bay:  claimed  by  the  Dutch,  38; 

annexed  to  the  Cape,  82,  106;  value 

of,  94 
Warren,    Sir   Charles :   his   conquests   in 

South    Africa,    82;    his    mission    to 

Bechuanaland,   215 
Washington  Colonization  Society :  work 

of,  49 
Weber,    Ernst    von :    influences    German 

colonization  efforts,  92   note ;  desires 

increase    of    German    influence     in 

Africa,   127 
Wilberforce,  William:  his  efforts  for  the 

abolition  of  slave-trade,  40 


Windham,  Thomas:  his  voyages  to 
Africa,   28 

Winton,  Sir  Francis  de :  succeeds  Stan- 
ley in  Africa,  70;  governor  of  the 
International  Congo  Association,  116 

Wissmann,  Hermann  von:  explorations 
of,  90;  appointed  Imperial  Commis- 
sioner of  East  Africa,  141 

Witwatersrand:  discovery  of  gold  at, 
275 

X,  V,  z 

Yoruba :    made    a    British    protectorate, 

159 
Zanzibar:   conditions  in,  206 
Zcihi:   held  by   England,  85 
Zintgraff:  his  expedition  in  Africa,  178 


ija. 


,5....'?, 


z^^^: 


-i 


-li 


W 


1/ 


^-> 


txj? 


:;    7 


% 


»1 


Jv? 


vrrrr 


A' 


^•^..O 


I'iif 


li  6; 


s 


V 


;l^ 


~-\i' 


N 


^^^ 


:».  I 


r-?  «2a5''i'° 


s< 


^ 


!I4 


§2 


/V^' 


*■» 


^^a 


Ssiaqt 


^•*^^^ 


?c;l 


3^ 


^e  M 


-,-fT-g!t 


i^^v,-— ^ 


5^^!^l-^\* 


^^ 


\  ■, 


i^-< 


I .'« 


l<i 


,^4C 


2      -^J^     t.if^f^ 


v: 


Ci: 


-<l 


■  /sc- 


i^^?*«.- 


:W 


'i.  's 


rOl 


<« 


^:^ 


_M^yl 


:?  ;5l--3r  2 


>■ 


V 


<^ 


.^^ 


^ 

o 

2 

< 

tr 

:: 

^ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

3 

:^ 

z 

o 

-■r     ; 

I  * 

/ 

-       c        r 

/ 

■", 

y- 

/:     :    ^ 

:_ 

>. 

X\.K%A 

H 

-i 

-  /:;: 

— 

//    "-.r-j^ 

-a; 

if 

5\-^ 

— 

AmM^ 

4a<2§t. 

#4^ 

i^ 

3 

^ 

♦  y. 

-•^ 

■>e^  I 

"■  r 

1. 

V     . 

4*    t«*^''    3^ 

^l'^ 

- 

'  '-^  m  ""^  C^ 

H  *« 

JJ                ^ 

y^v'S^ 

\      '■^'^ 

s  .:  • 

^^%afc  «»v=V 

^ 

^   ' 

»»^^a "  '     ^ 

^ 

/ 

»"''■ 

University  of  California  Library 
Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


?hone  Henewals 
310/825-3188 


IV  r  1 


'^ntri 


